Varying Interpretations of Themes in Rime of the Ancient...

Many things of nature have been interpreted many different ways. For example, a butterfly could be seen as a sign of innocence and freedom, while a storm could be seen as destruction. How the symbol is interpreted is also up to the author themselves. The author could write a poem in which everything within the words is symbolizing the opposite of what would thing. A spider could symbolize intelligence instead of fear, and fire could be seen as a rebirth, not death. In reversal, a certain flower could be seen as an insult to a character, instead of a gift (think Ophelia in Hamlet, with her giving of the flowers). In the Rime of the Ancient Mariner, the Albatross is seen as a symbol of hope, life, and God, while the Raven in The Raven is interpreted as death, regret, and Satanic evil. The Albatross here is used as a symbol of hope, while the Raven is interpreted as a symbol of regret. In Rime of the Ancient Mariner, the shipmates were stuck in a sea of ice, after being blown there from a huge storm. They were slowly getting stuck within the ice, as they couldn’t move faster than the ice, and when the Albatross flew above them. â€Å"...round and round it flew. The ice did split with a thunder-fit;...†. After the Albatross arrived, all seemed to be getting better. The ship was able to drive right through ice, with no apparent ice blocking them. It all appeared to be miraculous, and gives them hope. In The Raven, however, the Raven appears when the narrator is taking aShow MoreRelatedThe Sonnet Form: William Shakespeare6305 Words   |  26 Pagesenjoyed a number of revivals and periods of renewed interest. In Elizabethan England—the era during which Shakespeare’s sonnets were written—the sonnet was the form of choice for lyric poets, particularly lyric poets seeking to engage with traditional themes of love and romance. (In addition to Shakespeare’s monumental sequence, the Astrophel and Stella sequence by Sir Philip Sydney stands as one of the most important sonnet sequences of this period.) Sonnets were also written during the height of classical

Weekly Reflection - 1188 Words

Learning Team C Weekly Reflection A train that derails in a terrible accident is a good comparison for an organization that does not have a strategic plan in periods of catastrophic events. The problem is the train is completely off the original course after clearing the accident scene. A strategic plan with focus on long-term business objectives is important, especially in the event of a crisis. In this paper the subject is a discussion of this week’s objectives among Learning Team C. The discussion includes sustainability of long-term business operations, how global markets affect business strategy, and a long-term strategic management plan for sustainment of organizational performance. Further discussion includes how these topics†¦show more content†¦Technological advancements have increased most organizations’ ability to conduct business worldwide however this is still a challenges to conduct business in countries with limited access to these advanceme nts in third world countries. Apple Incorporated, one of the world’s largest personal electronic entertainment companies, built its empire by developing business strategies to mitigate or eliminate factors that affect global markets. To maintain its global dominance Apple intends to adopt the following four themes to ensure sustainability. Scale operation including manufacturing, retail, and Internet to meet global demands. Rapidly expand into developing countries with a focus on China. Introduce new products, such as the Apple TV and new iPhone schedule for release in September 2012. Invest the company’s 100 billion dollar cash surplus into new acquisitions, continued research, and development, and entry into new markets. Apple hopes these business strategies will cement its place in an ever changing global market (Meyers, 2012). Long-term Strategic Management Plan Strategic managers understand the importance of long-term objectives because short-run profit opportunities are not the best for profitability and sustained corporate growth. Michael Porter is known for the development of five forces that aid in industry analysis. Porter also developed three genericShow MoreRelatedData Collection Methods Used And How Did They Align With The Focus Of The Research?773 Words   |  4 Pagesusing the six specific goals that were created by the research team. The students were asked to take notes on how they felt they were doing moving toward their goals (2012). The last data method that was used was the weekly reflection sheet. There were seven items on this reflection sheet that asked the students if they felt they meet their goals for the week. They were then asked to reflect on the weather they reached their goals and why they did or did not. These three methods align with theRead MoreReflection Essay781 Words   |  4 PagesI determined that I needed a new interest, something to keep my mind engaged and challenged. I enrolled in the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) through the Columbia Southern University (CSU) just for fulfillment. This reflection assignment exercise proves to be the catalyst for my future college endeavors. The assignment to reflect on DBA program dreamed of taking steps towards realizing those ideas and course accomplishments right now. Due to time some course assignments, I will embrace,Read MoreCounseling, Reflection, And Setting Goals1317 Words   |  6 Pagesability to attend to my client. I believe I came into these sessions strong in my nonverbal skills and encouragers. Nevertheless, I struggled with focused counseling, reflection of emotions, and setting goals. Intentionality seems to be significant in the growth process; therefore, one of my first actions in response to these reflecti ons will be to create a plan to address my opportunities for growth. The discomfort I experienced in my first couple of sessions stemmed from several different issuesRead Moreunit 332 Essay2148 Words   |  9 Pagesbe a good listener, be consistent and have a good sense of humour. Outcome 2 2.1 Reflection is important as it helps us identify what we think we do and what we actually do such as Donald Shon introduced the concept of reflective practise he claimed that reflection is a continuous process from a personal perspective, by considering critical incidents through life experiences. There are two types of reflection, reflective in action which is during being able to think on our feet and adjust whatRead MoreThe Role Of A Superintendent Within A School District963 Words   |  4 Pagessuperintendent within a school district. I found that the reflections as part of the weekly journal to of particular interest and benefit as I examined he â€Å"Guiding Questions† for this final synthesis essay. Interestingly, my colleagues in this course found these reflections not to be beneficial. During one of our class meetings it was noted that these were not a beneficial exercise and that reflection was not needed. To that, I would counter that reflection s always ne eded but it is often the easiest itemRead MoreEssay about Virtual Situated Learning Environment (VSLE)1217 Words   |  5 Pagesexperiences, can provide managers with broader learning In keeping with the need to develop greater reflective practice in managers, the of practice, of their own reflections as designers of the VSLE as well as of managers Management educational has been traditionally structured around a 3-4 hourly weekly managers who often arrive for a weekly 3-hour class after a hectic stressful day or week, or requires them to lose part of a weekend after a stressful working week. Furthermore, it does not take accountRead MorePromote Professional Development Essays2745 Words   |  11 Pages I have come to realise I am a visual learner and find ‘feeling and doing’ is my best way to learn. After this, I can reflect upon my practice, finding my strengths and weaknesses. I have also started a reflective diary, so on a weekly basis, I can see where I feel I have exceeded and struggled with certain tasks. I am then able to make a plan of action for the following week. Daily informal conversations with my Manager and team also support me too develop my practice. 3.2Read MoreEssay about Using Reflection to Identify Teacher Development Needs1883 Words   |  8 PagesWithin this assignment I will start with a brief outline of what reflection is and propose a rationale for engaging in reflection. I will then identify three key themes that featured in my reflective journal and explore these using theoretical models and critical analysis in relation to the development of my professional practice throughout the course and as a trainee teacher. I will then conclude with a summary of my development and identify future professional development needs. â€Å"Reflective practiceRead MoreManagment 5301062 Words   |  5 Pageshopping in between discussion posts. I am looking forward to getting to know you all. COURSE POLICIES Evaluation: There are 1000 possible points. I will update the online grade book weekly so that you always know where you stand grade-wise. It is your responsibility to check the grade book weekly. The performance evaluation (grading) is divided up as follows (See classroom for specifics on assignments. See course calendar for due dates): Course Instructional Plan - MGMT 645 Read MoreDoes Social Workers Improve The Quality Of Life For Clients? Essay1422 Words   |  6 Pagesby monitoring the amount of coffee and energy drinks consumed in a week. Weekly Outcome: As a result, the author monitored the consumption of coffee and energy drinks and monitored moods as she adjusts from reducing and ceasing consumption of both beverages. Weekly Consumption of Coffee: Large - 12 Medium- 2 Small- 3 Weekly Total: 17 Weekly Consumption of Energy Drinks: 8.4 ounces-0 12 ounces-0 16 ounces-0 20 ounces -8 Weekly Total: 8 Week 2 (Baseline Continued) September 6 (Monday) to September 12

Evaluate the Impact of China’s Accession to the WTO on the world economy Free Essays

string(96) " fell by just 2%, to 40%, until 2001, but has subsequently halved from 40% to 20% in 2007-2010\." Introduction Background In 1978, when a series of reforms aimed at economic development and opening to world trade were made, China used these to become one of the largest economies in the world by the time of their accession to the WTO in 2001. Just prior to these major reforms, China was the world’s thirty-second ranked exporter country. By 1989 it was the world’s thirteenth largest trading nation. We will write a custom essay sample on Evaluate the Impact of China’s Accession to the WTO on the world economy or any similar topic only for you Order Now [1] During this time China had joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Prior to this, in the period 1949-1978, China was fully committed to Communist economic policies and pursued a Socialist heavy industry development strategy. Consumption was not at an optimal level, much of the economy was under state control and spare resources were used for the building of new factories. There were numerous trade barriers, with tariffs on most goods, tight import controls and import quotas. China therefore had a very closed economy, until the Chinese leadership decided to take a more pragmatic approach by introducing elements of capitalism to promote economic growth. The 1978 reforms led to an enormous increase in China’s total value of trade, with average annual percentage growth rates in the mid-teens, leading to huge inflows of foreign direct and portfolio investment. The significant export-led strategy was a key factor in the impressive rates of growth and lifted millions of people above the poverty line. The nature of China’s trade preferences also changed dramatically, with a (fast-track) industrialisation not too dissimilar to the one seen by the developed world in the 18th and 19th Century. In 1978 over half of China’s exports were primary commodities—a figure that later fell to 5 per cent. Exports of manufactured goods, just 46 per cent of the total in 1978, more than doubled to 95 per cent, with over 30 per cent of that being new and high-tech products.[2] Why did China join the WTO China formally became a member of the WTO on December 11, 2001. Its accession is particularly note-worthy because although China was a part of the General Agreement on Tariffs (GATT) its readmission to the multi-lateral trading system took 15 years from its submission in 1986 to its accession in 2001. Of course, this had much to do with the legacy of the Communist revolution in China in 1949. A significant motive for China joining the WTO was the negative effects were it not to join. Whilst the economy may have benefited from protection in the short run, it would have been a hindrance in the long run because of the trade and structural advantages that the economy would be closed off from. Also, with the UK and the United States having such a powerful influence in the WTO and other world organisations, China could see itself suffering sanctions because of political issues (eg human rights) if they refused to join. Furthermore, if China excluded itself from world trade and stayed in its Communist ‘bubble’ it would not be possible for it to influence a world centred mainly on Capitalism. So, in order to have a major influence in policy-making, China needed to join the key organisations. This would help protect its interests and prevent economic policies being forced upon it without it having any input, such as agricultural trade issues. Thirdly, prominent Chinese leaders believed that without an external disciplinary organisation, the economic progress that China had seen for the past few decades may start to plateau because of vested interests and corruption. The WTO would provide pressure to implement new reforms and maintain economic advancement. Then, if the economy subsequently deteriorated, the Chinese government would be able to blame outside influences, such as the WTO. The WTO would also lead to significant economic benefits, specifically through world trade. WTO entry would allow China to gain greater market access for its exports to Europe, Japan and the United States, especially in the clothing and textile industries. Also, as the economy was experiencing a slowdown in the late 1990s, joining the WTO would provide a positive injection, with some economists forecasting additional growth of 2% pa, creating 10 to 15 million jobs. During the period prior to WTO membership, foreign direct investment (FDI) decreased year-on-year, which helps explain China’s eagerness to join the WTO. There was a need for new investment from Europe and the US that China could direct into improving its service sector to supplement manufacturing exports into Asian markets. Finally, China may also have had an ulterior motive in joining the WTO in order to strengthen its economic and political ties with Taiwan. WTO membership for both countries would increase trade and could have potentially initiated new talks about political integration. In any event, if relations between the two countries deteriorated, the WTO could act as a mediator. China’s initiatives prior and since joining the WTO – commitments it has given to the WTO Once China opened its economy to world trade in 1979, it has centrally managed its trade policies, starting with complex import and export controls and trade barriers in the 1980s, and subsequently relaxing these with significant tariff reductions on the majority of goods to facilitate joining the WTO. This, along with domestic price liberalisation, ensured that domestic prices of most traded good were consistent with world prices by the mid-1990s. Provided China implements its WTO commitments in accordance with the agreed timetable, China will become ever more integrated into the world economy and the resultant growth in global trade will benefit other WTO countries as well. The above table of average tariff rates since 1997 demonstrates how China has opened up to trade from worldwide markets. In all sectors, apart from a couple of agricultural-based ones – feed grains and plant fibres – average tariff rates have fallen, with the greatest rates of decline occurring since China’s WTO accession in 2001. For example, the sugar tariff fell by just 2%, to 40%, until 2001, but has subsequently halved from 40% to 20% in 2007-2010. You read "Evaluate the Impact of China’s Accession to the WTO on the world economy" in category "Essay examples" Beverages and tobacco have also seen a huge reduction in their protection, which can only be positive for net exporting developing economies worldwide. China’s willingness to lower its trade barriers and open its markets will result in higher inward direct investment capital flows. The extent of China’s protectionism mostly extends to tariffs now. This is because as part of preparing for WTO accession, its leaders agreed to eradicate the use of import quotas, licences, designated trading practices and other non-tariff barriers. Unlike the continual tariff reductions on traded goods over a number of years, China’s service sector, which has previously experienced virtually no foreign competition, will see a large increase in transparency with the rest of the world. Liberalisation of licensing in these sectors will, in the long run, ensure full access to foreign businesses, such as in the telecommunications industry which is currently run by state-owned enterprises. Other than market-access commitments, the WTO conditions for accession included the national treatment and non discrimination principles, which are included in the Trade-Related Investment Measures and (TRIMs) and Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs). While most trade commitments mainly affect foreign trade, compliance with these commitments are more likely to impact on the domestic market with greater foreign investment through the removal of inter-border barriers and a more stable business environment, including clearly defined intellectual property rights. China’s implementation of its WTO commitments has caused very little contention within the WTO since its accession. The Transitional Review Mechanism (TRM) was set up to review China’s compliance with its commitments. Although issues have been raised by China’s trading partners in certain areas, no official complaint has been made against China and any problems that have arisen have been the result of teething problems rather than outright non-compliance. Affect of China’s membership on the WTO as an institution When China joined the WTO, it was assumed that it would not be content with being a normal member because of its growing size and that China would act accordingly by taking an aggressive stance in policy-making. Furthermore, at the time of accession, the Doha Round of trade negotiations were about to take place and China was expected to have a substantial influence on the outcome of these talks. In reality, although China and other developing countries have had issues with developed nations, the failure of the Doha Round can be attributed to a number of issues, most notably contention between the US and the EU over the use of export subsidies in agriculture. In general terms, most trading partners within the WTO have looked favourably on the impact of China, with one Japanese spokesman saying that China’s accession to the WTO was the most important trade event of the century.[4] Despite this, Japan, along with the EU and the US, had concerns over trade regimes in the automotive industry and the lack of transparency of rules and regulations in the Chinese domestic market. However, after five years of membership, most WTO members seemed to accept that China was still committed to implementing its WTO commitments and that China was no more a ‘special’ member than anyone else. This was shown by the Trade Policy Review (TPR) in April 2006, where China was recognised as a member that had benefited greatly from the accession and was fully committed to the stalling Doha Round Trade Negotiations. A major trading power such as China, with a huge export capacity and domestic market is bound to find some frictions within the WTO. When disputes have arisen, China has made a substantial effort to resolve them before a formal complaint has needed to be made. Also, China has not instigated many disputes against other members, which can only help to build positive relationships within the WTO. Where China has acted disappointingly is in the Doha Round, where it was anticipated that it would have taken a more significant role but, instead, it initially left Brazil and India to take a leading role in representing developing countries. Finally, in July 2008, during the WTO mini-ministerial in Geneva, China stood up and joined a core group of 6 countries that was attempting to remove restrictions on trade in agriculture and industrial goods. Its first success, together with India, was to retain an important â€Å"special safeguard mechanism† that protects both countries from agricultural imports and resisted efforts for them to lower their cotton tariffs on imports from the US. China has therefore finally come to the table to play a major role in the Doha Round, but its approach has been more defensive, particularly for service industries, rather than pragmatic.[5] In view of its dominant position in world trade, it is important that China now steps up and joins with the other two large developing economies, Brazil and India, and the US and EU, to make key decisions regarding market access rights and to tighten the rules of the WTO. Affect of WTO Membership on China’s Internal Reform Programme China’s mixed record in the WTO should be seen, above all, in the context of market reforms at home post-WTO accession. The overriding advantage of WTO accession to China is that it has sustained the earlier sweeping unilateral reforms, made China’s trade-and-investment regulations more transparent and predictable, and given China a long-term stake in multilateral rules[6]. But with its home in Geneva, the WTO cannot direct the reforms in Beijing. In recent years, the national reform engine has decreased and industrial-policy interventions have increased because of this. At the same time, China has increasingly used Preferential Trade Agreements (PTAs) to its advantage, especially with other countries in East Asia. Affect on Exports and Imports Global Impact There has been a remarkable shift in China’s share of global trade since WTO accession. On imports, the US still has the highest share, but this is declining and stood at 14.2% in 2007. Conversely, China’s share rose from 3.6% in 2000 to 6.7% in 2007, and they are projected to take second place from Germany. This trend is expected to continue while China continues to globalize, as more than half of imports to China are raw materials used to produce goods for domestic consumption and exports. On exports, the situation is even more dramatic, as China moved into top position by the end of 2009 (see following chart[7]) having lagged considerably behind the major developed nations in 2001. The chart below illustrates how far China’s contribution to world trade has advanced compared with other â€Å"second division† countries from 1985 to 2009, measured by each country’s share of total global imports and exports.[8] Asia China’s accession to the WTO will have a considerable affect on the economies of Asia and will present both challenges and opportunities for them. Over the coming years, China will continue to improve its business environment and lower tariffs, which will lead to increased access to China’s domestic markets, both for foreign trade and direct investment. This should lower transaction and input costs, while the increase in exports from China should lower the price of imports for the rest of Asia, particularly its trading partners. The table above shows the restrictive effect that China’s tariff policy had on its global imports following the opening of trade in 1979 until its WTO accession in 2001 and then the subsequent increases in the immediate period thereafter. Post-2001, Asian countries had the largest share of their exports going to China and the highest growth rate of exports to China since 1980. This is especially true of South Korea, whose exports to China grew from 0% in 1990 to 16.2% in 2003. Going forward, China’s reduction in protection measures will lower its input costs and result in lower export prices that will increase its competitiveness as an efficient supplier of goods. The benefits of this for Asian countries will be increased output and welfare because they can source cheaper Chinese imports and use them for intermediate inputs in their own secondary and tertiary industries. There have, however, been some negative effects on the trade position of countries in South Asia associated with China’s accession to the WTO. This is because developing countries such as Thailand are in direct competition with China for exports of certain goods, especially the clothing and textile industry. China’s higher comparative advantage in these labour intensive industries (due to lower wages and other input costs) will mean that products from other Asian countries will become less attractive to developed nations such as the EU and the United States. Therefore, whilst China can expect to see its export growth continue, other developing countries in Asia and elsewhere are likely to see a reduction in their exports as a result of China’s improved competitiveness. The EU and the United States The main effects that China’s accession will have on the EU and the United States are in their agricultural export industries. At the time of accession, the US had a 27% market share, while the EU only accounted for 4% of China’s agri-food imports. However this is a massively growing industry for the EU and this figure has been rising ever since as a result of the sharp tariff reductions, making EU food more competitive. Another reason for China’s growth in demand for imports is that, as a result of sustained economic growth, the Chinese public have more disposable income to spend on exotic foreign foods. It is the growing Chinese domestic market that provides ample opportunity for the US to increase its exports however. Many of these goods may be made in China, because distance and lead times mean companies cannot serve every customer in China from a US base but these product and service sales require design or service support, or component supply, from US facil ities, which will strengthen US companies’ core operations and employment. However, China will generally choose to source imports on the basis of price. This means that the US and the EU need to keep their respective exports cheap in order to stay competitive otherwise they won’t see the benefits of China’s accession. The US also has the problem of high transportation costs. Because of the need to keep prices as low as possible, the strength of the dollar, the Euro and the Pound will also become increasingly important to stay competitive. This is because of foreign competitors such as Canada, Australia and the rest of Asia, as well as competition amongst themselves. The opportunity for the EU and the United States to benefit from rising trade with China and the subsequent fall in trade barriers meant that both were very receptive to China’s membership of the WTO. China’s motivation to join the WTO also meant that the EU and the United States, as powerful members, could ensure that the terms for China’s accession were made favourable to their imports and exports. This was shown by the EU-China Trade Agreement in 2000 and the US-China Trade Agreement in 1999. Is the emergence of China onto the global stage a threat to the US economy’s dominanceYes, but only far into the future. The US economy is over twice the size of China’s and, on a per capita basis, nearly twelve times bigger. From mid-2007, the European Commission has adopted a more confrontational tone in EU-China trade discussions. A major source of tension is the EU’s widening trade deficit with China, which Commissioner Mandelson referred to as a â€Å"policy time bomb†. It rose from roughly EUR 50 billion in 2001 to around EUR 170 billion in 2006, a more than threefold increase. [10] Thus, the gap between the EU and US’s trade deficits with China (USD 256 billion in 2007) is narrowing. However, there is an important difference between the US and EU current-account deficits: the EU’sdeficit is not a concern in terms of GDP (around 0.5 per cent of EU-27 GDP), whereas the US deficit is much higher at 5-6 per cent of GDP. However, the focus on the EU-China trade deficit is perhaps overstated, as Germany’s trade surplus, for example, is higher than China’s. Furthermore, while the EU-China trade deficit has been increasing, the EU’s trade deficit with the rest of the world has decreased– from EUR 93 billion in 2000 to EUR 66 billion in 2006.[11] Many imports into the EU now come via China, rather than directly from their home countries. This is particularly the case for nine large trading partners with the EU: the USA, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan and Thailand[12]. Since 1999, Europe has increased its imports from China, but taken relatively less from the USA and the rest of Asia. So, the major difference between today and the 1990s is that the EU global trade deficit is concentrated mostly on China rather than being spread over the whole of Asia. The EU-China trade deficit is a manifestation of the development of trade flows and production locations, with China becoming a base where primary inputs from other countries are manufactured and re-exported. That includes the intra-firm tr ade and global supply chains of EU-based companies. China has gained a comparative advantage in low-tech, labour-intensive industries such as clothing and toys. But its final-assembly exports of products made during the assembly of primary inputs have been growing even faster (Athukorala and Hill, 2008). Conventional trade theory suggests the EU-China trade deficit is essentially nothing to worry about. China is simply utilising its comparative advantage in unskilled, labour-intensive manufacturing. Impact on the BRICS China’s progress within the global economy can be measured in comparison with the other countries in the BRICS. Although China ranked only 83rd in the World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business Index for 2007, this represented a significant improvement over the previous few years and clearly ahead of Russia, India, Brazil and Indonesia. For â€Å"trading across borders† it is way ahead of South Africa, Russia and India[13]. China also occupies 48th position in the World Economic Forum’s new Enabling Trade Index (which uses commercial infrastructure, market access and the business environment to measure a country’s encouragement of trade), higher than South Africa (59th), India (71st), Brazil (80th) and Russia (103rd). China increased its position in the world rankings for trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) very quickly, moving above Japan, to become the world’s third largest trading nation, with 7% of world trade by 2006 (7.7% of goods trade and 3.5% of services trade). China’s trade-to-GDP ratio had reached 70%, considerably above Brazil and India, and for such a populous country to have this kind of ratio is extremely rare. China has a 2.4% share of global inward FDI, which is again higher than the other BRIICS and has been the second largest recipient of FDI in the world since 2000, with China’s outward FDI also growing at an increasing rate.[14] Thus, China has moved ahead of most developing countries and the other BRICs in generating economic growth, and perhaps more importantly, large amounts of employment, poverty reduction and improvements in human welfare, especially in urban areas. High investment and saving rates have been the cause of this, but trade and FDI have also been very important during the expansion of labour-intensive manufactured exports. Having said that, China still has high regulatory barriers that waste resources, restrict internal trade and generally stifle domestic sources of growth. The onus is now on China to reduce these barriers in order to maintain their high economic performance levels. Affect on Comparative Advantage China, like other South Asian countries, gained a comparative advantage in many consumption goods by having an abundant supply of labour which drove down wage prices. This led developed countries to become concerned with their own comparative advantages disappearing when exporting, as Paul Samuelson wrote: Growth in the rest of the world can hurt you if it takes place in sectors that compete with your exports[15]. So, to protect against this, the United States in particular has imposed import quotas in order to limit the amount of Chinese imports coming into the US. However, there seems to be substantial evidence to the contrary for the past 25 years, with advanced countries slightly increasing their annual % change in terms of trade and developing countries’ falling. The diagram above shows the effect of what would happen if China flooded the international markets with goods that they have a comparative advantage in. The world supply curve would shift outwards from S to S’ giving a higher quantity (Q’) and a lower price (P’). This would have a positive effect on the countries importing these types of goods but would negatively affect the comparative advantage of export-competing countries in Asia. The assumption that China would shift huge amounts of resources into this export industry as a result of trade liberalisation would depend on how long the gestation period of investment lasts. As is usually the case, product development, retraining and improved market position take time, so in the short run the other developing countries should not be markedly adversely affected. Furthermore, it is generally assumed in the literature that the clothing and textile sectors produce homogeneous products that give China an immediate advantage in world trade. This is not strictly the case because there can be variants in different types of clothing for both men and women. This would suggest that countries could specialise in one type, which would mean that China does not need to have the same effect on other countries that it might if all the products were homogeneous. Impact of China’s Foreign Currency Reserves The differences in growth and consumption between the countries that borrowed and consumed too much during the years before the latest financial crisis (the US, UK and most countries in southern and central Europe) and those that generated excess savings and output (including China, Germany, Japan and the oil exporters) have created global imbalances and present major challenges. China powered its economy by increasing exports to US consumers, whilst manipulating the global currency markets to limit market forces that would normally have restricted its export growth. The Chinese government forced companies to sell their dollar and euro export earnings into Yuan at artificially low exchange rates. So, the central bank accumulated a large part of the country’s export earnings rather than allowing them to be recycled and spent on foreign consumer goods and investments. China’s foreign reserves have grown from $500 billion in 2000 to more than $4 trillion now. This money has been used to buy US treasuries, issued to fund US budget deficits which financed further consumption on Chinese exports. There were hopes that a by-product of the 2007-9 financial crisis would be a gradual reduction in these global imbalances. The credit crunch should clearly lead to lower consumption in the high-debt economies but for the global imbalances to be re-balance din a lasting way, it will be necessary for producing countries to make equal changes to their output. To date, the evidence is that consumption has weakened but the export dependent economies, especially Germany and China, are not taking action to lower their trade surpluses through lower exports or to significantly increase their own consumption leading to higher import levels. Chinese officials are talking of the need to rebalance the economy in favour of domestic growth, particularly of household consumption, but all that appears to mean currently is that China will not seek to increase its trade surplus any further from the level of $300-$400 billion in 2008-9, compared with only $70 billion 4 years earlier. Other countries appear to have accepted that China’s policy of maximising exports and accumulating foreign reserves is a fact of life. The IMF is forecasting that China’s trade surplus will narrow only marginally from 10% of GDP to 9.4% in 2014. Given that the Chinese economy is almost certain to grow during this period; this implies that the trade surplus will continue to expand. If the indebted countries do decide to curb consumption and reduce their national debt levels, the trade surpluses will have to shrink. The immediate post-crisis consensus was that the US would return to its role as the world’s largest consumer and borrower, but politically the US government and public are likely to prevent this. Instead, government policies and business strategies are likely to be redirected towards promoting export-led growth. A good example is GE, which became the world’s largest non-bank financial institution, but is now reinventing itself as a global produce r of high-value investment goods. The result should be that growth in the US and UK will be stronger than expected and they will start to capture market share from export-dependent economies, assisted by a depreciating currencies. However, tensions will then emerge as China and Germany will do their utmost to maintain their trade surpluses which will then put pressure on other trading nations, especially developing countries that naturally compete with China and the weaker members of the Eurozone, to protect their export share. So, either way, the world economy faces problems due to China’s success in growing its share of global trade, which accelerated following China’s WTO membership. If the imbalances widen, concerns will intensify about the international debt of debtor nations and trade protectionist measures that would weaken global trade growth will become increasingly likely. Or, in the more realistic scenario of lower deficits in these countries, China will be forced to accept lower trade surpluses or take market share from smaller economies. In the absence of action by China, the major deficit countries will have to seriously consider deliberate currency depreciation or tariff protection to reduce their trade deficit. Protectionist measures by the US could result in a ruinous international trade war or even in threats by the Chinese government to sell some of its massive holdings of US treasury bonds, which would risk destabilising financial market. To avoid this, there would need to be a coordinated approach by many governments to change macroeconomic policies. It wouldn’t be necessary that all trade deficits are eliminated but western governments would need to accept that market forces by themselves are insufficient and that trade and currency management policies are acceptable tools to redress the situation. China, Japan and the other planned economies, for their part, would have to accept a bigger role for market forces in economic management. This has started changing already – the broader G20 group of nations has emerged as a more credible forum for international negotiations than the G7 group of industrialised countries, and the IMF is looking into how inconsistencies in national economic policies and trade objectives should be tackled. Impact of China’s Exchange Rate Unlike most large manufacturing-based economies, China, instead of making use of a floating exchange rate system, has historically either pegged its currency, the Yuan, to the US dollar or at least managed it to generally mirror movements in the US dollar. This had led to accusations that the Yuan is consistently undervalued on the world market, as the normal market reaction to China’s enormous trade balance would be for its currency to appreciate. The undervalued Yuan has had a significant positive effect on China’s manufacturing exports because foreign companies have been able to obtain products which benefit not only from lower labour costs but also the undervalued currency; both of which create more employment opportunities. This has allowed China to build up a trade surplus and a substantial amount of international reserves. Having been through the 1997 Asian Crisis, China like other Asian economies welcomes the security of a trade surplus rather than a trade deficit. Also, the exchange rate encourages large foreign direct investment inflows into the Chinese economy, which further stimulates economic growth. The implications this has for the WTO is that while Chinese exports become cheaper, this may result in anti-dumping claims from other countries. In addition, as imports into China become more expensive, this could act as a form of import control, limiting imports; which would somewhat offset the effects of China’s tariff commitments to the WTO. This is an accusation that has been levelled at China by the US and EU in the past few years. The presence of this â€Å"import control† would curtail the effectiveness of the EU and US expanding export trade policy that I mentioned earlier, that should be the natural consequence of China’s WTO accession. On the other hand, there are some positives for the rest of the world as a result of a lower value of the Yuan, especially cheap manufactured goods to the US and EU. This is because, if the Yuan rose in value, more money as a proportion of income would have to be spent on manufactured goods, leaving less available for other goods and services. The most likely effect is that the US and EU economies would contract by more than the rise in their manufacturing output due to improved comparative advantage. So the overall welfare, at least in the manufacturing sector, is likely to be higher with a managed lower valued Yuan than a higher valued floating Yuan. Commentary on Recent Developments In December 2010, the WTO ruled that the 35% duties imposed by the US on Chinese tyre imports in 2009 were justified. This is a rare example of a formal WTO ruling involving China. It was evident at the third annual BRICS leaders meeting held in China in April 2011 that it is fast becoming a China-denominated forum, with the potential for China to drive its global agenda outside of interference from the US. China is the BRICS natural leader, as each country has c12% of its trade with China but only c3% with the other BRICS members.[16] China championed the inclusion of South Africa as the newest member, even though it lags other emerging economies, as a representative of the African continent, with which China now has a large and rapidly expanding interest. Although China experienced a surprise trade deficit of US$1bn in the first quarter of 2011, it recovered with a strong monthly surplus of US$111.4bn in April, with Chinese exports increasing by 35% compared with April 2010 and imports up 12%.[17] This demonstrates that China is still benefiting from a weak exchange rate and could tolerate a stronger currency, and international pressure to allow this is sure to intensify. Chinese officials have regularly stated a greater willingness for this to happen, which will help tackle rising inflation levels. Concluding Remarks The accession to the WTO of a country such as China, which is set to become the world’s largest economy, can only be seen as a positive move for global trade developments in the long run. The main distracting issues, such as trade deflection with other, smaller developing countries, should decline over time. This is because China seems to be making a conscious effort to conform to the rules and institutions of the WTO, which is in the interests of both itself and all the other members within the WTO. Also, the current global imbalances, thought by many alarmist economists to be a threat to global financial stability, are not actually a major cause of the current financial crisis and could correct themselves as a result of inter-temporal preferences. Therefore, provided China continues to make concessions on its import barriers and restrictions on access to its internal market, the positive effects should be far reaching, especially within the EU and the United States. Bibliography Books Growth and Development, Eighth Edition, Palgrave Macmillan A.P. Thirlwall International Economics, 8th Edition, Pearson International Krugman and Obstfield Capitalism 4.0 The Birth of a New Economy, Bloomsbury 2010 Anatole Kaletsky. Journals China’s Role in the World Trade Organisation and the Doha Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations Andrew L. Stoler, former Deputy Director-General of the World Trade Organization (1999-2002) Foreign Trade and Economic Reform in China, 1978-1990, Cambridge University Press Nichols R. Lardy Elements of a sustainable trade strategy for China, Long Q Mark Halle Impact of China’s WTO Accession on East Asia Elena Ianchovichina1 and Terrie Walmsley IMF Working Paper, China: International Trade and WTO Accession March 2004 Thomas Rumbaugh and Nicolas Blancher China’s Trade Policy Post-WTO Accession: Focus on China-EU Relations, European Centre for International Political Economy (ECIPE) September 2010. Fredrik Erixon, Patrick Messerlin and Razeen Sally China and the Doha Development Agenda: Working paper prepared for the 2009 WTO Forum, Geneva September 2009 Chin Leng Lim. Financial Times: Various reports and articles [1] Nichols R. Lardy, Foreign Trade and Economic Reform in China, 1978-1990, Cambridge University Press [2] Mark Halle, Elements of a sustainable trade strategy for China, Long Q [3] Impact of China’s WTO Accession on East Asia, Elena Ianchovichina1 and Terrie Walmsley, April 2003 [4] Andrew L. Stoler, China’s Role in the World Trade Organisation and the Doha Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations, pg. 4 [5] Fredrik Erixon, Patrick Messerlin and Razeen Sally, China’s Trade Policy Post-WTO Accession: Focus on China-EU Relations, pg.10 [6] Fredrik Erixon, Patrick Messerlin and Razeen Sally, China’s Trade Policy Post-WTO Accession: Focus on China-EU Relations, pg.10 [7] â€Å"China’s export prospects: Fear of the dragon†. The Economist 7th January, 2010 [8] Starmass International (Chinese market research company) http://www.starmass.com/china_review/global_economy/major_countries_imports.htm [9] IMF Working Paper, China: International Trade and WTO Accession pg16, T Rumbaugh and N Blancher March 2004 [10] Fredrik Erixon, Patrick Messerlin and Razeen Sally, China’s Trade Policy Post-WTO Accession: Focus on China-EU Relations, pg.20 [11] Fredrik Erixon, Patrick Messerlin and Razeen Sally, China’s Trade Policy Post-WTO Accession: Focus on China-EU Relations, pg.21 [12] Fredrik Erixon, Patrick Messerlin and Razeen Sally, China’s Trade Policy Post-WTO Accession: Focus on China-EU Relations, pg.21 [13] Fredrik Erixon, Patrick Messerlin and Razeen Sally, China’s Trade Policy Post-WTO Accession: Focus on China-EU Relations, pg.3 [14] Fredrik Erixon, Patrick Messerlin and Razeen Sally, China’s Trade Policy Post-WTO Accession: Focus on China-EU Relations, pg.3 [15] Krugman and Obstfield, International Economics,8th Edition, pg. 98 [16] Jamil Anderlini, Financial Times 14 April, 2011 [17] Jamil Anderlini, Financial Times 10 May, 2011 How to cite Evaluate the Impact of China’s Accession to the WTO on the world economy, Essay examples

African and Native American Slavery Essay Example For Students

African and Native American Slavery Essay Scot Ferguson11-12-96period 2The 1500s, a time of discovery, was when the Europeans came to dominatemost of the New World. The Europeans traveled to Africa and captured Africansto help develop their land and satisfy their need for power. I feel that thetreatment of the Indians and Africans by the Europeans was completelyunjustifiable. While the Indians and Africans were less technologicallyadvanced and the Europeans were uneducated, in this particular field, nothingcan compensate for the actions of the Europeans. As Europeans began to settle new lands they began their exploration ofthe foreign worlds. What they found was the opposite of what they expected. They found what they thought was a new breed of humans. In reality they werejust Native Americans. These Indians were less technologically advanced thanthe Europeans. They also worshipped different and multiple gods and atedifferent foods. Europeans saw this as barbaric, so they treated them asbarbarians. In the beginning Native Americans hadnt the faintest idea of what theEuropeans had in mind when they said trade. They figured that when the WhiteMan came and showed all that hospitality they meant it. Of course, they didnt,the Europeans captured the Indians to be used as slaves. They were alsoslaughtered and raped because of resistance to leave their land. If any Indiansrefused to leave their land they would be killed. The women were raped for sickand disgusting reasons. Europeans didnt feel that the women, or men for thatmatter, were worth anything as humans so they were beat and raped without anythought about what they might be doing. As we watched the movie Roots, I noticed a part in the movie where theywere on a ship and a man brings in a black woman, who was a slave. The manoffered her to the ships captain and referred to her as a belly warmer. Thatgot me to thinking what could be going on in that mans head as he said that. When I heard that I was shocked that a man could treat someone like that. People have feelings and cannot be treated as objects. Maybe the Europeans didnt realize that these people were, in fact people, and that drove them to thisawful conclusion that they could treat people this way. As Europeans settled their land and began to build houses, farms andplantations, they realized that they needed servants to assist them in theirfarming. So people would travel to Africa capture blacks and then sell them tomerchants and plantation owners. They would then beat them and put them to long,grueling work. They would treat them as they did the Indians, and for much thesame reason. They figured that since the blacks were black and appeared to beless advanced then they must be less significant. People of the next generation whose parents owned slaves and grew upthinking slaves were okay is understandable. I just dont feel that anythingcould justify treating the slaves they way they did. they had absolutely norespect for them. They would savagely beat them to get them to work harder thanhumanly possible and they would rape the women. I dont think that I will everknow how any one could do such a thing. I conclusion I strongly feel that the way Europeans treated people thatwere less technologically advanced is completely and utterly wrong. It isdifficult to contemplate what was going on in their heads as they were capturingthem, killing them and even raping them. I can not believe how they could thinkthat the color of someones ones skin or religious beliefs could make them lesshuman. I am glad I live in a country based on the belief that all men arecreated equal. .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 , .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 .postImageUrl , .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 , .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09:hover , .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09:visited , .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09:active { border:0!important; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09:active , .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09 .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u984fdbfb504e15330080451def7eec09:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Burmese Days Essay PaperCategory: Social Issues

Divorce and its Economic Impact to the Society

Introduction Recent decades have been characterized by an increase in divorce rates. In the past 150 years, there have been increasingly many cases of broken marriages in the U.S. followed by the increased divorce rates. Divorce has become extremely common in today’s society. Researchers have described divorce as the end to a marriage.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Divorce and its Economic Impact to the Society specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is a consequent of a failure by both couples to continue in the commitment to both marital and family roles. Divorce dates from the ancient Mesopotamia, where Athenian fore-fathers liberally allowed divorce if the person filing for it had presented sufficient reasons to the magistrate. There are various types of divorces, including at-fault, no-fault and summary divorces. Statistics show that many marriages are destined to divorce (Gordon, 2007). The social a nd economic hardships young families go through to raise their status to that of the middle class and ensure that children born in the families have a bright future all depend on how stable such a family is. Marriage is no longer a private agreement between two individuals but a core social institution which participates in ensuring socio-economic stability of a nation. There exists substantial controversy and uncertainty about the effect of divorce on children and the parties themselves. Research indicates that children from separated families are more prone to socio-economic challenges that can affect their further life. Little research has been done on the overall impact that divorce poses to the society (Stevenson Wolfers, 2007). This paper will delineate the impact divorce has on a nation’s economy. A nation’s economy is impacted since divorces have some effects on the future of a labor force of a nation. Divorce has an impact on children and determines how they contribute to the economy. This paper will aim at establishing whether divorce is really necessary to end family disputes and whether the economy of a nation would be likely improved if fewer cases of divorce are witnessed. Hypothesis Marriage contributes to the social and human capital. Research has shown that intact family structures reduce government expenditures incurred through costly social programs. It has been estimated that divorce and children born out of wed lock use taxpayers money to a tune of approximately $112 billion annually and more than one trillion every decade. This paper studies the constraints the government undergoes to meet the needs of the separated families assuming that separation results in the additional negative effects on children and grownups being served under the tax payer funded social programs.Advertising Looking for proposal on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Literature Re view Divorce rates are said to have been doubled between 1960s and 1970s. This was the period which witnessed the rise of women’s liberation movements, the sexual revolution and the abolition of laws that restricted marriage between races. Today’s society experiences extremely high numbers of divorce cases. Divorce is often due to failure by both couples to continue being committed to their marital and family roles. Divorce dates from the ancient Mesopotamia, where Athenian’s fore-fathers liberally allowed couples to divorce if the party filing for divorce had presented sufficient reasons to the magistrate (Coontz, 2005). According to Stevenson and Wolfers (2007), couples decide to marry or live together if the gains of a marriage exceed those of being single. The gains can be in the form of group benefits such as rearing of children and the pooling of benefits, among others. The technological advances, changes in tastes, institutional and legal environments, an d definition of sexual relations have really altered gains from marriages. These have been identified as the main forces behind the separation of marriages (Stevenson Wolfers, 2007). With the introduction of family pills into the society, sex outside marriage with little or no fear of unwanted pregnancy progressed rapidly. One of the many effects of birth control methods increased blinded marriages with increased divorce rates. Introduction of household technology reduced the productivity of marriage. This made men and women have little to gain from marriages. Another important force was the reduction of the gender wage gap. This force was due to the declined occupational segregation and de-unionization. These trends declined the comparative advantages of wives at home. More so, it increased the share of men in home production and reduced the value of specialization within marriages (Blau Kahn, 2000). Governments have set regulations that define family as a legal institution. It d efines clearly who is to granted divorces, parental obligations and other subsequent rights. In the 1960s, a new wave of large-scale deregulation of family was embraced in the U.S. More so, the government’s role of establishing who is to marry or divorce has declined. The several legal changes have altered the basis of the marriage contract. This has been done by removing the ability to make inter temporal contracts within marriages and with the shift to right to divorce.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Divorce and its Economic Impact to the Society specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Many empirical studies investigating the increase of divorce rates have reached conflicting views. The most recent test has indicated a sharp increase in divorce cases in two years that followed unilateral divorce laws. There are also other findings by investigators owing that the reduction in female suicides and domestic vi olence indicated that the unilateral divorce laws had shifted bargaining power to women (Stevenson Wolfers, 2007). Another attributed force to increased divorce cases is the ease with which potential partners would meet. According to Mckinnish, sexually- integrated workplaces can increasingly create greater opportunities for opposite sex to meet. From her 1990 data analysis, she showed how occupation comprised of greater share for two individuals was likely to cause a marriage end. Another related shock in the future marital patterns showed how gender ratios had changed in colleges. Whilst in 1960s women were the minority, they now make up a clear majority (Goldin, Katz Kuziemko, 2006). The potential of internet increased efficiency in matching have provided another shock. Internet Tracking Poll in 2005 indicated that 3% of internet users’ couples met online. The advantage of online search is that it expands the set of potential partners and has higher degrees of anonymity. These forces have reduced the attractiveness of marriage (Stevenson Wolfers, 2007). Divorces have caused great impact on the children development. Children attain several development tasks related to psychological maturation. Divorce separation of parents impacts on the child’s cognitive development. Some of these impacts include the decreased terms of dependency, reduced sense of security and trust. Research showed kids go through huge trauma during a divorce. They develop depression, which can be felt through adolescence even into adulthood. Kids from separated families were found to have early maturation and sexual relations described by shorter unstable relationships. The impact was also shown to be huge on the partners themselves with others even undergoing depression and economic instability as well other constraints, which might affect the society at large. More so, divorces have been very costly on the nation’s economy. Studies have shown that $112 billion ta xpayers’ money is spent annually to fund social programs. This will amount to one trillion in a decade.Advertising Looking for proposal on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Other sectors adversely affected include high infant mortality, drug addiction and trouble with law or even teenage pregnancy. Some researchers have proposed the ways to curb divorces including combined parent education offering modules for reconciliation. Others propose delayed divorce processes to give couples time to reconsider reconciliation options (Doherty Sears, 2011). Design model This study will involve the examining of data which is both abstract and tangible. The variables involved in the study are also both abstract and tangible. The study can be defined as a correlation research as opposed to being a descriptive research. A descriptive research will only portray what is existent while a correlation research goes ahead to find out the relationship in the variables involved in the study (Cherry, 2011). The design model best fitting this study should, therefore, be comprehensive enough to capture all the elements involved in the study. As such, both quantitative and quali tative methods will be employed towards determining whether the hypothesis formulated holds any truth. As Weinreich (2011) pointed out, combining both the quantitative and qualitative methods in undertaking a research will result in gaining the best results. By using the quantitative methods, one is guaranteed of achieving â€Å"objectivity, generalizability and reliability† (Weinreich, 2011, p. 1). Weinreich further noted that, â€Å"techniques cover the ways research participants are selected randomly from the study population in an unbiased manner, the standardized questionnaire or intervention they receive and the statistical methods used to test predetermined hypotheses regarding the relationships between specific variables† (Weinreich, 2011, p. 1). Some of the data will be analyzed by the quantitative methods including the estimates of the funds directed to divorce related set ups. The study will use calculations to estimate costs borne by tax payers due to divor ce. The study will use available literature and information on estimated expenditure cost, and those provided by the government to compare and estimate the impact of divorce on the society. This will involve drawing up of various mathematical figures to make the analysis of this information possible. Data will be divided into appropriate different periods to make a chronological comparison a possibility. The study will also comprehensively employ the qualitative techniques to ensure that the study is wholesome. Information on the psychology says that children under due to divorces may be useful in the aspect of pointing out how the productivity is affected by the children. In conclusion, generally it can be argued that divorce cases have many consequences on the society as well as on the government. As noted above, families are building blocks for a society and therefore if families are broken all over the indication acquired is that that society is a broken one. The impact of divor ce on the nations is a very general study topic and thus an attempt will be made to ensure that all the information collected is tied down to the research question. Some changes are likely to be made in the course of undertaking the study to ensure that the activity yields information that is significant. References Blau, D., Kahn, L. (2000). Gender differences in play. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(4), 75-99. Cherry, K. (2011). Research Methods in Social Psychology. Psychology. Retrieved from: https://www.verywellmind.com/social-psychology-research-methods-2795902 Coontz, S. (2005). Marriage, a history: from obedience to intimacy, or how love conquered marriage. New York, NY: Viking. Doherty, W., Sears, L. (2011). Second chances: A proposal to reduce unnecessary divorce. New York, NY: Prentice Hall. Goldin, C., Katz, L., Kuziemko, I. (2006). Economic Perspectives. Journal of economic perspectives, 20(4), 133-56. Gordon, B. (2007). The effects of marriage and divorce on fa milies and children. Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.  Retrieved from: https://www.mdrc.org/publication/effects-marriage-and-divorce-families-and-children Stevenson, B., Wolfers, J. (2007). Marriage and Divorce: changes and their driving forces. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21(2), 27-52. Weinreich, K. (2011). Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in Social marketing Research. Weinreich Communications. Retrieved from: http://www.social-marketing.com/research.html This proposal on Divorce and its Economic Impact to the Society was written and submitted by user Kamden S. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Quotes About the Importance of Words

Quotes About the Importance of Words Words can incite anger or invoke passion. They can bring people together or tear them apart. Words can uphold the truth or nurture a lie. We use words to encompass history, to describe the natural universe, and even to conjure realistic visions of things that exist only in fantasy. In fact, in some mythology, spoken words are thought to be so powerful that they can create worlds, creatures, and human beings. Here are some quotes about words from writers, poets, political figures, philosophers, and other notable minds. All our words are but crumbs that fall down from the feast of the mind.- Kahlil Gibran (from Sand and Foam) As we must account for every idle word, so must we account for every idle silence.- Benjamin Franklin Be careful of the words you say,Keep them short and sweet.You never know, from day to day,Which ones youll have to eat.- Anonymous A great many people think that polysyllables are a sign of intelligence.- Barbara Walters But words are things, and a small drop of ink,Falling like dew, upon a thought, producesThat which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think.- George Gordon, Lord Byron By words we learn thoughts, and by thoughts we learn life.- Jean Baptiste Girard Colors fade, temples crumble, empires fall, but wise words endure.- Edward Thorndike Duty is the sublimest word in our language. Do your duty in all things. You cannot do more. You should never wish to do less.- Robert E. Lee For me, words are a form of action, capable of influencing change. Their articulation represents a complete, lived experience.- Ingrid Bengis The good man brings good things out of the good stored up in his heart, and the evil man brings evil things out of the evil stored up in his heart. For out of the overflow of his heart his mouth speaks.- Luke 6:45 Good words are worth much, and cost little.- George Herbert However many holy words you read,However many you speak,What good will they do youIf you do not act on upon them?- Buddha I like good strong words that mean something.- Louisa May Alcott (from Little Women) If language is as inextricably tied up with consciousness as it seems to be, then the continuing diminishment of our inclination to use it to express in letters the times in which we live could mean that an element of human consciousness itself is on the verge of disappearing.- Anonymous If words are to enter mens minds and bear fruit, they must be the right words shaped cunningly to pass mens defenses and explode silently and effectually within their minds.- J. B. Phillips If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart.- Nelson Mandela If you would be pungent, be brief; for it is with words as with sunbeams- the more they are condensed, the deeper they burn.- Robert Southey In a sense, words are encyclopedias of ignorance because they freeze perceptions at one moment in history and then insist we continue to use these frozen perceptions when we should be doing better.- Edward de Bono It has not been for nothing that the word has remained mans principal toy and tool: without the meanings and values it sustains, all mans other tools would be worthless.- Lewis Mumford It seems to me that those songs that have been any good, I have nothing much to do with the writing of them. The words have just crawled down my sleeve and come out on the page.- Joan Baez Its always a bit of a struggle to get the words right, whether were a Hemingway or a few fathoms below his level.- Rene J. Cappon Kind words are a creative force, a power that concurs in the building up of all that is good, and energy that showers blessings upon the world.- Lawrence G. Lovasik The most valuable of all talents is that of never using two words when one will do.- Thomas Jefferson My task which I am trying to achieve is by the power of the written word, to make you hear, to make you feel- it is, before all, to make you see. That- and no more, and it is everything.- Joseph Conrad Often when I write I am trying to make words do the work of line and color. I have the painters sensitivity to light. Much ... of my writing is verbal painting.- Elizabeth Bowen One of the hardest things in life is having words in your heart that you cant utter.- James Earl Jones Our words should be purrs instead of hisses.- Kathrine Palmer Peterson Poetry is a deal of joy and pain and wonder, with a dash of the dictionary.- Kahlil Gibran The real art of conversation is not only to say the right thing at the right place but to leave unsaid the wrong thing at the tempting moment.- Dorothy Nevill The six most important words: I admit I made a mistake.The five most important words: You did a good job.The four most important words: What is your opinion?The three most important words: If you please.The two most important words: Thank you.The one least important word: I.- Anonymous So difficult it is to show the various meanings and imperfections of words when we have nothing else but words to do it with.- John Locke The teachings of elegant sayings should be collected when one can. For the supreme gift of words of wisdom, any price will be paid.- Siddha Nagarjuna To me, the greatest pleasure of writing is not what its about, but the music the words make.- Truman Capote Words are the model, words are the tools, words are the boards, words are the nails.- Richard Rhodes Watch your thoughts, they become your wordsWatch your words, they become your actionsWatch your actions, they become your habitsWatch your habits, they become your characterWatch your character, it becomes your destiny.- Anonymous When I read great literature, great drama, speeches, or sermons, I feel that the human mind has not achieved anything greater than the ability to share feelings and thoughts through language.- James Earl Jones A word is deadWhen it is said,Some say.I say it justBegins to liveThat day.- Emily Dickinson (A Word is Dead) Words are chameleons, which reflect the color of their environment.- Learned Hand Words are not as satisfactory as we should like them to be, but, like our neighbors, we have got to live with them and must make the best and not the worst of them.- Samuel Butler Words are potent weapons for all causes, good or bad.- Manly Hall Words are the most powerful thing in the universe... Words are containers. They contain faith, or fear, and they produce after their kind.- Charles Capps Words do two major things: They provide food for the mind and create light for understanding and awareness.- Jim Rohn Words, like nature, half reveal and half conceal the soul within.- Alfred, Lord Tennyson Words may show a mans wit, but actions his meaning.- Benjamin Franklin Words- so innocent and powerless as they are, as standing in a dictionary, how potent for good and evil they become, in the hands of one who knows how to combine them!- Nathaniel Hawthorne A writer lives in awe of words for they can be cruel or kind, and they can change their meanings right in front of you. They pick up flavors and odors like butter in a refrigerator.- Anonymous You see these dictators on their pedestals, surrounded by the bayonets of their soldiers and the truncheons of their police. Yet in their hearts there is unspoken- unspeakable!- fear. They are afraid of words and thoughts! Words spoken abroad, thoughts stirring at home, all the more powerful because they are forbidden. These terrify them. A little mouse- a little tiny mouse!- of thought appears in the room, and even the mightiest potentates are thrown into panic.- Winston Churchill

Gender Role Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Gender Role - Essay Example "Slavery is terrible for men; but it is far more terrible for women" (Jacobs, 2003). Through the character of Linda, Harriet Jacobs depicts that women sexual abuse and physical violence are the main forms of humiliation and oppression. Sexual abuse of a slave woman is the expression of male's power and dominance of the owner. Jacobs describes that socially slave women are used to be oppressed. They have no rights to protect their dignity and freedom used to cultural norms followed by generations. "But I do earnestly desire to arouse the women of the North to a realizing sense of the condition of two millions of women at the South, still in bondage, suffering what I suffered, and most of them far worse" (Jacobs, 2003). Similar to Jacobs, Frederick Douglass discusses the role of gender in society and its impact on relations between a slave and owner. Gender roles in 'Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass' shape not only how people identify themselves and view the world but also how others identify and relate to them and how they are positioned within society. "Slaveholders have ordained, and by law established, that the children of slave women shall in all cases follow the condition of their mothers" (Douglass, 1997). Both Jacobs and Douglass portray that women are traditionally associated with childbearing, child rearing, emotional caretaking, and responsibility for the physical maintenance of the household. In contrast, men are associated with the activities of wage labor, physical prowess, intellectual achievements, and political agency. "Slaveholders pride themselves upon being honorable men; but if you were to hear the enormous lies they tell their slaves, you would have small respect fo r their veracity" (Douglass, 1997).This gender labeling is so strong that even when women work, they typically do so in areas regarded as "women's work". Also, "Women are considered of no value, unless they continually increase their owner's stock. They are put on a par with animals" (Jacobs, 2003). Labor markets are thus segregated horizontally by gender, with women and men differentiated in occupational roles. Dominance of men adds aggression and cruelty to cultural dimensions and values. Both narratives under analysis describe masculine societies. Masculinity describes a society in which men are expected to be assertive, competitive, and concerned with material success, and women fulfill the role of nurturer and are concerned with issues such as the welfare of children. Lack of respect towards women results in norms and values which reflect gender roles. It means that men play a dominant position as keepers of traditions and customers in contrast to women who perform a reproduction function only. Jacobs portrays that even free women suffer from male oppression and low social roles. "Mrs. Flint, like many southern women, was totally deficient in energy. She had not strength to superintend her household affairs" (Jacobs, 2003). Jacobs chose to write about gender roles faced with extreme violence and oppression during her young years. She underlines that emotional abuse is socially accepted form of violence. The consequence of emotional abuse is that it causes the greatest distress resulted in betrayal of trust and responsibility involved. Douglass writes about gender roles

Applying The Western Model Of Government On Countries Around The World Essay

Applying The Western Model Of Government On Countries Around The World - Essay Example If in the West the non-fulfillment of such standards are interpreted to basically indicate government failure, applying the same Western model in assessing another country's government would also require the same standards to be met in order for that government to be deemed successful. In the Western model of Democracy, for example, due process of law, respect for human rights and individual liberty, and the general population's participation in the democratic electoral process are among the standards that have thus far been raised by the Western school of thought to measure a country's level of democracy. When non-Western Democratic countries and governments, therefore, fail to provide adequate evidence that these specific standards are being met, these countries risk immediately being condemned by the global society as undemocratic. Organizations and individuals insisting on the application of Western models of government and the implementation of Westerns standards deduced from such models have thus been quick to condemn any and each country that have failed to meet these Western standards. Repressive regimes that fail to meet Western standards of Democracy, and who have a history, for example, of human rights violations, staggering judicial systems, and a weak electoral process, have thus been pressured in numerous instances to reform and meet these Western standards in order to gain the acceptance and approval of the dominant West. To be sure, the notion that a universal set of standards can be deduced from Western models of government and applied indiscriminately to all countries in the World, rests on some very thin assumptions-that there is only one path towards the development of a specific form of government, and that a country's progress down this path is but a naturally occurring process, one that is not influenced by internal and external factors. We can see these assumptions more clearly for what they are if we investigate the global movement towards Democracy. The application of a Western model of Democracy for all countries, for example, presumes that a country's progress towards democracy is a naturally occurring phenomenon, one that is dictated upon by a single process and occurs naturally without regard for a country's socio-political status nor influenced by any external and internal forces. Basically, this means, that countries would generally develop into democracies as they progress regardless of any internal and external pressure or movement. This has largely been disproved by numerous studies, most notably, an examination conducted in 1996 which showed that 58 out of the 61 democratic countries that were studied became democratic unnaturally and that democratic progress was as a matter of fact induced by way of economic sanctions and conditional aid that demanded for democratic legislation. (Whitehead, 1996) With today's governments leaning decisively towards Democracy and democratic forms of governance, the implementation of a universal model of democracy-one that is produced and upheld by the dominant West-presumes that for a country to successfully implement and uphold a democratic form of

Maria Montessori Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Maria Montessori - Essay Example I believe that children should be educated as per their capabilities and the lower classes should not be left out from the gift of education. Nowadays it is seen that money has become a source for education and many of the gifted individuals are sidelined only because they do not have enough money. Plato has given philosophies on education which clearly show that people should be emphasizing on the importance of education. An idealistic society always has a great educational background and thus education can be considered as the foremost factor of improvisation in this world. This essay would further revolve around the theories of Plato on education and its relation to my personal philosophy when it comes to education (Blackburn 2007; Mill 1867). Education is the key to success in this world as believed by many but it is still seen that many individuals are left behind when it comes to this success factor. Many of the developing countries are still lagging behind in their rate of lit eracy only because individuals in these developing countries do not have a proper curriculum for education. ... emselves the supreme leader of the subject without any competition in their field of subject and this can be considered as a loss to the pillars of education. Many teachers these days do not like being questioned about their subject as they think that they have all that is required in that subject. In other words these teachers consider themselves the ‘God’ of the subject. But this clearly can be said to be wrong as no one in this world has all the relevant knowledge about a particular subject. Plato in his theory of education stated that teachers should always be willing to learn in their lives and they should always be willing to share their knowledge for the greater good of the society. The teachers should not teach to earn but should rather make a primary goal of educating people. Educating individuals is a moral aspect of life which all the teachers should fulfil with respect to the morality in the society. I personally believe that the teachers should teach only to educate individuals so that these individuals can make a difference in the society. Secondly the teacher should be always willing to learn more from his students and thus cross questioning in lectures is an important way through which the teacher can learn even more (Blackburn 2007). Plato’s theory of education was widely based on the life stages in which he termed every life stage as a learning stage. It started from children of six years old to adults of 50 year and above. He believed that in every stage of life individuals are striving to learn more so that they can exist in the society. Similarly I believe that one should never give up learning but should rather dedicate his life to it so that he can learn from every aspect of life until he enters his grave. Plato believed that expertise and

Beam Adaptive Algorithms For Smart Antennas Computer Science Essay

Beam Adaptive Algorithms For Smart Antennas Computer Science Essay Smart antennas employed in space division multiple access systems can cater the high demand in terms of capacity in mobile applications without further increase in radio frequency spectrum allocation. Furthermore, smart antennas provide better quality of service (QoS) and better coverage. Therefore, beam adaptive algorithms used in smart antenna systems are of great interests. 1.2 Project Aims The project aim is to study and understand the adaptive algorithms for beamforming for Smart Antenna Systems and to develop research skills, by reading research papers and journal papers related to the topic. Moreover, to produce the technical draft that contains the analysis, results and discussion of several adaptive algorithms employed in Smart Antenna Systems. The research work conducted and a simulation will provide the better understanding of the subject and can be a possible contribution to the existing work. 1.3 Project Objectives The project objective is to attempt systematic comparison of the performance of different Adaptive Algorithms for beamforming for Smart Antenna System. The algorithms that will be under investigation in this project will be training sequence algorithms like Recursive Least Squares (RLS) and Least Mean Squares (LMS), and Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA). Simulations will be done to find out which algorithms are best for beamforming i.e. to form main lobes towards desired user and for convergence rate. The comparison of algorithms will be made on the basis of formation of main lobe and the convergence rate. The effect of jammers in algorithms will also be studied. 1.4 Project Outcomes The outcome of the project is come up with simulation software that will calculate the parameters of Smart Antenna and tell us which algorithm performs better in a particular situation. Moreover to prepare a research report that contains critical analysis different beam adaptive algorithms. 1.5 Structure of the report The first chapter of the final report is the Introduction which describes the motivation for research, project aims and objectives. The second chapter is the Literature review. The overview of recent work conducted in this domain and the brief summary of several research papers studied for conducting this research has been presented. Reading list is appended in the references section. Third chapter is the introduction to antennas and smart antennas. The fundamentals parameters of antennas and smart antennas are briefly described. Fourth chapter is on smart antenna system. Types of smart antennas and their comparison are done in detail. In fifth chapter description about the signal processing algorithms is presented. Lastly given are the results and conclusion. Chapter 2: Literature Review Smart antenna is the most efficient leading innovation for maximum capacity and improved quality and coverage [1]. They can adapt to varying traffic requirements dynamically. Smart antennas radiate narrow beam to serve different users and are normally employed at base stations. The complex weight computations that are based on different criteria are integrated in the signal processor in the form of software algorithms [3]. Due to the rapid growing demand in mobile applications not only for capacity but for high quality of service (QoS) and better coverage without increasing the radio frequency spectrum allocation the wireless systems that uses fixed antenna systems will no longer be in use [3] discuss the need for smart antennas in space division multiple access systems. The article focused on adaptive beam forming approach based on smart antennas the adaptive algorithms that are employed to compute the complex weight are discussed and LMS and RLS in particular. The fact that error c omputed from the filter at time n is used to provide the filter coefficient at time n+1 provides a nontraditional way to understand adaptive algorithms. [2] describe the approach of seeing classical adaptive algorithm like LMS, RLS, CMA, Decision directed) as recursive structures. [4] Explain the normalized least mean square (NLMS) algorithm for smart antenna system. The algorithm was implemented on the StarCore SC3400 DSP core and the performance was evaluated on MSC8144 DSP and the antenna coverage pattern was obtained and analyzed to find towards the desired signal source. With adaptive beamforming algorithm to name LMS for smart antenna the downlink multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) multi-carrier code division multiple access system is proposed [5]. [1] Describes the sequential Studies of beamforming algorithms for smart antenna systems. 2.1 Scope of Smart Antennas Smart antennas assured to award the significant increment in the capacity of system and its performance in the wireless communication system [11]. Which will eventually lead into increase profits for the telecommunications companies and also a decline in blocked and dropped calls. Its been about 45 years Antenna was first used in applications related to radar communication in the form of fixed array. In later years many researches on antenna helped into smart antennas and tiled the way for their uses in commercial wireless systems [12]. These are the main reasons smart antennas got so much interest over the few years. At present the application of smart antennas are predominant at the mobile base stations due to compact area and processing power requirements [13]. Currently, a lot of research is going on the mobile terminal based smart antennas. In the coming future we can expect smart antenna skills to be present at the base station and mobile terminal too. Chapter 3: Introduction to Antennas and Smart Antenna 3.1 Antenna According to IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antenna, it is defined as a means for radiating or receiving radio waves. 3.2 Fundamental parameters of Antenna The fundamental parameters of Antenna are: Radiation pattern Radiation intensity Directive gain and directivity Power gain and Radiation efficiency Front to Back ratio Antenna beamwidth Antenna beam efficiency 3.2.1Radiation Pattern Radiation pattern show the angular variation of field strength. They are drawn at some distance r proportional to field intensity in the direction ÃŽÂ ¸ and à Ã¢â‚¬  . Normalized Field Pattern: It is obtained by dividing the field component by its maximum value. It is dimensionless. EÃŽÂ ¸(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) = EÃŽÂ ¸(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) / EÃŽÂ ¸(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) max Power Radiation Pattern: Power density Pd is defined as power flow per unit area and is given by: Pd(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) =1/2*[E (ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  )] 2/ÃŽÂ ·0 Pattern may also be expressed in terms of power per unit solid angle .The normalized power pattern can also be expressed in terms of this parameter as the ratio of radiation intensity U(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) as function of angle to its max value. Pn(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) = Pd(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) / Pd max(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) The co-ordinates are ÃŽÂ ¸ and dB are used to draw the pattern and calculate by following relation: dB= 10log10Pn(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) 3.2.2 Radiation Intensity The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the radiation intensity U. 3.2.3 Directive Gain and Directivity For omnidirectional antenna: the power density at all the points on the surface of a sphere will be same. Pavg = Prad/4à Ã¢â€š ¬r2 The directive gain is defined as the ratio of the power density Pd(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) to the average power radiated. For isotropic antenna, the value of directive gain is unity. The directive gain can be defined as a measure of the concentration of the radiated power in a particular direction (ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) . The ratio of the maximum power density to the average power radiated is called maximum directive gain or directivity of the antenna. GDmax = Pdmax/Pavg 3.2.4 Power Gain and Radiation efficiency The relation between input power and power radiated is given as: Prad=ÃŽÂ ·r Pin ÃŽÂ ·r=Prad/ Pin Pin=Prad +Ploss ÃŽÂ ·r=Prad/(Prad +Ploss) The power radiated and the ohmic power loss can be expressed in terms of r.m.s. current as: ÃŽÂ ·r=Rrad/(Rrad +Rloss) The ratio of the power radiated in a particular direction (ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) to the actual power input to the antenna is called power gain of antenna. 3.2.5 Front to Back ratio (FBR) It is the ratio of the power radiated in the desired direction to the power radiated in the opposite direction. FBR = Power radiated in desired direction/Power radiated in opposite direction FBR depends on frequency of operation, spacing between antenna elements (inversely proportional) and electrical length of the parasitic elements of the antenna. FBR is an important consideration especially in receiving antennas 3.2.6 Antenna Beamwidth Antenna beamwidth is the measure of the directivity of the antenna. The antenna beamwidth is an angular width in degrees. It is measured on a radiation pattern on a major lobe. 3.2.7 Beam efficiency Total beam area ÃŽÂ ©A consists of the main beam area ÃŽÂ ©M plus the minor lobe area ÃŽÂ ©m. ÃŽÂ ©A= ÃŽÂ ©M+ ÃŽÂ ©m So Beam Efficiency is, M= ÃŽÂ ©M/ ÃŽÂ ©A Stray Factor: The ratio of minor lobe ÃŽÂ ©m area to the total beam area ÃŽÂ ©A is called stray factor. Em= ÃŽÂ ©m/ ÃŽÂ ©A EM + Em= 1 3.3 Smart Antenna The smart antenna is defined as an antenna array system that is supported by processing system that deals with the received and transmitted signal by the array using proper array algorithms to advance wireless system performance. [4] Numbers of distributive antenna elements are combined to make arrays of antennas called smart antenna. The different signals collected by individual antenna are calculated in such a manner that increases the signal strength of desired signal and reduces interference from other signals. [12] A smart antenna can be observed as a combination of antennas, whose transmitted or received signals are processed using smart algorithms. These smart algorithms make antenna work efficiently, and reliable in communication [13]. Main purpose of smart antenna is that the signal comes from the source hit the target in that way if the target is moving the antenna is such a smart and intelligent that it would change its direction according to the target movement and the main lobe of the antenna must be toward the target so that the maximum strength of the signal strikes the target. Mostly Smart antennas are being used in wireless communication systems to provide interference reduction and enhance user capacity and the data rates [6]. 3.4 Uses of Smart Antenna Smart antennas are considered useful in the wireless communication systems. The area coverage and the capacity of a system are increased by Smart antennas. Maximum data rate is increased by using smart antennas in multipath and diminish fading due to the terminating the component of multipath. One of its most useful applications is direction finding with the applications including emergency services and traffic monitoring [11]. In areas with less population, extended coverage is predominant in those areas than increased capacity. I such areas the gain provided by the antennas can extend the range covered by a cell and hence more users can communicate with less system capacity than any other typical antenna. It is used for the interference reduction and rejection as well. Finding the location of user will be a useful application of smart antenna, geo-locations of user and to make downlink beam forming easy [14]. Smart antennas are currently used in Radars, Radio astronomy and mostly used in cellular systems to keep the system speed equal with the number of increasing subscribers. It is also used in defense for safe communication purpose. 3.5CHARACTERISTICS OF SMART ANTENNA There are four main characteristics of smart antenna, DOA (direction of arrival) evaluation Beam forming, antenna diversity beam-width 3.5.1 DIRECTION OF ARRIVAL / ANGLE OF ARRIVAL A measure of the direction of the propagation of electro magnetic radiation upon arrival at a receiver; it is the angle between the plan of the phase front and some plan of reference, usually the horizontal, at the receiver antenna. [9] Direction of arrival indicates the direction from which usually a signal arrives at a point [3]. We can guess the direction of arrival of the signal by using different techniques like multiple signal classification. In this technique an algorithm is used to for frequency estimation and the location of emitter, matrix pencil method or their derivatives. [9] Usage Geodesic location or Geo-location of the cell phones is the main application of direction of arrival nowadays [9].Multiple base stations calculate the angle of arrival of the cell phone signal and this information is combined to locate the cell phone anywhere on the earth. It is generally used to locate the pirate or military radio transmission point. In submarines acoustics, angle of arrival is the method to localize objects with active and passive ranging [9]. 3.5.2 BEAM-FORMING Beam forming is a technique of digital signal processing and its is used for directional signal transmission or reception form the preferred signal direction as compared to some undesired direction [3]. It mean that the techniques which we used have the capability to make the radiation pattern of the antenna by constructive and destructive interference for reception and transmission and to accept moving beams in the direction of preferred signal and put nulls in the direction of interfering signals. This mean due to this co-channel and interference reduce and antenna gain is increased in the direction of desired signal [13]. Figure 3.1 These rebounds from different surfaces can set up time delays, attenuations, phase shifts, and distortions that can interfere with each other at the receiver end of the antenna. It can be set by the digital signal processing techniques used in smart antenna system [15]. 3.5.3 ANTENNA DIVERSITY Antenna diversity uses more then two antennas to develop the quality and dependability of a wireless link [3]. Specially in the areas where LOS is not clear between transmitter and receiver. Before reaching at the receiver end signal is reflected along several paths. This result in introducing phase shift, time delays, attenuation, and distortion which results in the interference between signal arriving before and after the particular signal [9].As two or more antennas receive several observations of the same signal they will calculate the most strengthen signal give the output. 3.5.4 BEAM-WIDTH It means the half-power beam-width [7]. The maximum radiation strength is found, and then the points on both side of the maximum, represent half power of the maximum strength are located. The distance between the half power points is known as the beam-width [16].Half of the power expressed in decibels is -3dB, so half power beam-width is often referred to as the 3dB beam-width. We considered both horizontal and vertical beam-widths. [6] 3.6 TYPES OF SMART ANTENNAS There are two major types of smart antenna switched beam smart antenna and adaptive array smart antenna. 3.6.1 SWITCHED BEAM SMART ANTENNA There are different permanent beam patterns presented in switched beam system. A decision is made as to which beam to be taken, at any given point in time, depend upon the necessities of the system [3]. 3.6.2 ADAPTIVE ARRAY SMART ANTENNA It allows the antenna to focus the beam to any direction of direction of desired signal continuously ignoring interfering signals. Beam direction can be estimated using the direction of arrival (DOA) estimation methods [3]. 3.7 ADVANTAGES For the most part smart antennas are employed at the base station in the mobile network to improve system capacity. Capacity means the number of the users that can be handled in a system. Using of Omni-directional antennas originate co-channel interference when two users use the same band of frequency that finally limits the user capacity in the system [8]. In case of smart antennas beams are focused towards the desired user minimize interference to other users using the same frequency band. 0: Figure 3.2 It helps against multipath fading noise which improves dependability of received signal. Reduced power consumption for cell phones, low probability of interception and detection improved location estimation and improved range of reception [1]. 3.8 DISADVANTAGE Most major disadvantages of smart antenna is in their design and completion in hardware. Multi RF chains can boost the price and make the transceiver bulkier [4]. Most of the devices in the making of a typical antenna used non-linear devices and using smart antenna also increases the components used. If not checked properly, this affects the performance of the antenna [15]. As the data bandwidth required for the digital signal processing increases with the number of antenna elements used. This can limit the data rate for different applications Chapter 4 SMART ANTENNA SYSTEM 4.1 INTRODUCTION Smart Antenna System is combination of multiple antennas which Transmit or Receive Signals using an Adaptation Algorithm [4]. A smart antenna system is combination of many antennas elements with a signal receiving and transmitting ability to optimize its radiation and reception pattern robotically in reaction to the signal environment [10]. 4.2 TYPES OF SMART ANTENNA SYSTEMS There are mainly two ways to implement antennas that dynamically change their antenna radiation pattern to minimize interference or multipath affects by increasing coverage area and range. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Switched beam: There are finite numbers of fixed patterns which are defined by the system (sectors) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Adaptive arrays: There are an infinite number of patterns (scenario-based) which are adjusted in real time The Switched beam approach is easy and simple then the adaptive approach. It increases the network capacity as compared to the usual Omni-directional antenna systems. In this technique, an antenna array produces over lapping beams that cover the neighboring area as in the figure [17]. When a signal is coming and detected, the base station determine the beam that is best associated in the signal-of-interest direction and then switch that beam toward the user for communication [6]. 0: Figure 4.1 [17] The Adaptive array system is efficient then the switched array technique [2]. A mobile user is tracked by this system constantly by routing the main beam towards the destination and at the same time sending no signal in the direction of interfering signals like switched beam. 0: Figure 4.2 [17] 4.2.1 SWITCHED BEAM SYSTEMS Switched beam antenna systems make many fixed beams with finely tuned sensitivity in particular directions [17]. These antenna systems detect strength of signal, choose one from numerous already determined, fixed beams, and switch his beam from one beam to another as the user moves during the sector [11]. The output of many antennas combine through Switched beam systems in such a way that it form finely directional beams with more selectivity than can be achieve with usual, single-element antenna technique. 4.2.1.1 WORKING In this type of adaptive approach in reality did not steer or scan the beam in the direction of the desired signal [17]. Switched beam use an antenna array which radiates a number of overlapping permanent beams covering a elected angular area. The directional beam leads to increase the factor of a frequency reuse in channel by decreasing possible interference and it also increases the range [14]. These antennas system not have a uniform gain in all directions but when they are compared to simple antenna system they have more gain or increased gain in the desired directions. The Switched beam antenna has a switching method that enables the system to select and then switch the desired beam which gives the best response for a mobile user. The selection is generally based on maximum received power for user [9]. 0: Figure 4.3 [3] A usual switched beam system for a base station consists of many antennas with each array covering a certain sector in cell. Take an example of switched beam-forming system below [7]. It consists of a phase shifting network, which forms many beams look in certain directions. The RF switch targets the correct beam in the direction of interest. The measurement for selecting of the correct beam is done by the control logic unit. The control logic unit is controlled by an algorithm which scans all the beams and then selects that beam which is strongest signal based on a measurement calculated by the algorithm. 0: Figure 4.4 [17] This technique is not good when interference is high this technique is simple in operation. Let us consider an example where User 1 is at the side-edge of the beam receiving low power which is entertained by this beam [6]. If there is a second user were at the direction of the null then there will be no interference but if the second user also moves into the direction where user 1 is located then there will be interference occur therefore the switched beam system is suitable where there is no interference [17] 4.2.2 ADAPTIVE ARRAY ANTENNAS Switched beam systems only give a limited performance improvement when compared to common antenna systems in wireless communication [3]. Greater improved performance can be achieved by using superior signal processing technique to practice the information achieved by the antenna arrays. The adaptive array system is Opposite to switched beam systems, they are smarter because they are able to react to the changing RF environment. They have a huge amount of radiation patterns as compared to fixed finite patterns in switched beam systems to adjust in the changing radio frequency environment [9]. An Adaptive array is just like a switched beam system which use number of antennas but they are controlled by signal processing [17]. This signal processing moves the radiation beam towards a desired user as he changes his direction and ii limit the interference happen from other users by launch nulls in their directions. This is shown in figure below [17]. http://i.cmpnet.com/embedded/gifs/2005/0503/0503feat1fig2.jpg 0: Figure 4.5 [17] 4.3 COMPARISON Here are the differences between switched bean array and adaptive beam array 4.3.1 SWITCHED BEAM SYSTEM It uses many preset directional beams with slim beam-widths. The necessary phase shifts be provide by normal preset phase shifting networks e.g. the butler matrix [11]. They do not need difficult algorithms, easy algorithms are used for selection of beam It need only reasonable relations between mobile and base station as compared to adaptive array system [15]. Because low technology is used it has minor price and complication. Mixing is easy and cheap into existing cellular system. It give important increase in coverage and capacity compare normal antenna based systems [6]. Since many slim beams are used, normal intra-cell hand-offs occur between beam when a mobile moves from one beam to another [15]. It does not make a distinction between direct signal and interfering signal this leading to undesired improvement of the interfering signal more than the desired signal [6]. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Switched beam systems offers limited co-channel interference control as compared to the adaptive array system. 4.3.2 ADAPTIVE ARRAY SYSTEM A whole adaptive system; moves the beam towards desired signal and put nulls toward interfering signal directions [17]. It is implemented on DSP technology [17]. To steer the beam and the nulls complicated adaptive algorithm is required [6]. Rejection capably of interference is much better then the switching beams system [15]. It is difficult to impose on existing systems, i.e. up gradation is hard and costly. Since nonstop moving of the beam is required as the user moves, high contact between the mobile and base station is required [17]. It provides improved coverage and improved capacity because of improved interference elimination as compare to the Switched beam. It can either decline multipath components or add them by correcting the delays to improve the signal quality[6]. 4.4 ANTENNAS SMARTNESS Smart antenna systems using these adaptive systems are quite smart in the true sense and that is why they are referred as smart antennas [17]. The smartness of these systems is due to the intelligent processor using digital processing techniques which are integrated in these systems. These signal processing techniques use complex algorithms which are our main concern in our project [11]. As modern world is using advanced technology in different fields, smart antenna also comes with such type of digital formation algorithms that operate the signals in accurate and flexible manner. On the way to the smart antenna, the signal is received, converted and modulated for transmission into digital signal and at the other end it is reconverted in analog information [5]. 4.4.1 BASIC MECHANISM There are a lot of function a smart antenna can perform on the bases of techniques used for desired scenario. Some of them major functions smart antenna can perform are listed below First: Smart antenna can locate the direction as well as the angle of arrival of all the incoming signals [16]. Whether they are interfering in the signal of our interest or they are same signals arriving at the antenna from different directions after reflection from different surfaces. Their direction is estimated by the processing techniques used in smart antennas. Secondly: The signal of our interest can separated from the cluster of all the incoming signals using smart antenna systems. Lastly a beam is moving in the direction of the wanted signal and the user is traced when he moves in the area and placing noting at interfering signal directions by continually updating the weights [17]. It is pretty obvious that the direction of radiation beam of the main lobe in an array depends upon the phase difference between the elements of the array. Thus it is possible to constantly move the main beam in any direction by adjusting the phase difference between the elements. The same concept is used in adaptive array systems in which the phase is tuned to attain highest radiation in the most wanted direction. 4.5 ADAPTIVE ALGORITHM CLASSIFICATIONS The adaptive algorithms can be classify into category base on different approach given below Continuous adaptation: The algorithms based on this technique fine-tune the weights as the arriving data is sampled and continue updating it in such a way that it converges to an finest solution. This approach is suit able when the signal information is varying with time. Examples: The Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm and the Recursive Least square (RLS) algorithm [17]. Block adaptation: The algorithms based on this technique calculate the weights depend on the approximation achieve from a temporary chunk of data [3]. This method can be used in a non-stationary situation provided the weights are calculated from time to time. Example: The Sample Matrix Inversion (SMI) algorithm [17]. Reference signal based algorithms: These types of algorithms worked on the principal of minimization of the mean square error between the received signal and the original signal. Hence it is necessary that an original signal is available which has high relationship with the desired signal [17]. Examples: The Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm, The Recursive Least square (RLS) algorithm [17]. Blind adaptive algorithms: These algorithms do not want any original signal information. They are generating the necessary ordinal signal from the received signal to get the desired signal. Examples: The Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA). CHAPTER 5ALGORITHMS It is obvious that themselves antennas or not much intelligent to perform such.It is the importance of antenna system which is such clever in aspect of advanced signal processing algorithms. In order to use the smart antenna to its full smart techniques superior and computationally smart algorithms must be used. There are number of algorithms which are optimized and specialized for different smart antenna system and for different scenarios. For this purpose here are the few algorithms we have studied till the day to get a brief idea about the smart antenna systems are given below. LMS (Least Mean Squares) RLS (Recursive Least Squares) CMA (Constant Modulus Algorithm) We will try to give a logical comparison on the performance of different Adaptive Algorithms for beam forming for our Smart Antenna. In this study we have exposed that these algorithms RLS and LMS are best for making beam forming like main lobe towards desired user but they have boundaries towards reject interference. In case of CMA has improved response towards beam forming and it gives improved results for interference rejection, but there is a problem the Bit Error Rate (BER) is greatest and high in case of single antenna element in CMA. It is confirmed that convergence rate of RLS is faster than LMS so RLS is proved the best choice for us. The effect of changing step size for LMS algorithm has also been studied. 5.1 CMA (CONSTANT MODULUS ALGORITHM) CMA is based on those methods which are old but many of them are modified or completely changed techniques. This is popular algorithm and we are using this algorithm for blind adaptive array processing for beam pattern. But there is a problem with this algorithm it has low convergence rate because it is a type of instant gradient searching method depend on performance surface. Later some enhanced algorithms such as orthogonal constant modulus (OCMA) and least square constant modulus algorithm (LSCMA) are proposed [4].OCMA use the Newton algorithm and LSCMA is a type of block-update interactive algorithm. Both use estimation of revision of covariance matrix. This means high calculation complexity and convergence rate is improved. But they will not converge when covariance matrix is positive and singular. Faster convergence rate, constant convergence steps, lower computational complexity and better numerical stability will be achieved with instant gradient searching and conjugate gradi ent algorithm [2]. Conclusion A constant modulus algorithm based on modified conjugate gradient for adaptive array processing. CMA algorithm has the similar performance as high convergence rate algorithm such as LSCMA; there is an advantage that they do not need to perform matrix inversion and its performance is improved then other type of conjugate gradient algorithms 5.2 LMS (Least Mean Squares) and RLS (Recursive Least Squares) An adaptive algorithm has a natural recursive formation even in the case of a limited impulse response modelization. As the error