Divorce and its Economic Impact to the Society

Introduction Recent decades have been characterized by an increase in divorce rates. In the past 150 years, there have been increasingly many cases of broken marriages in the U.S. followed by the increased divorce rates. Divorce has become extremely common in today’s society. Researchers have described divorce as the end to a marriage.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Divorce and its Economic Impact to the Society specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is a consequent of a failure by both couples to continue in the commitment to both marital and family roles. Divorce dates from the ancient Mesopotamia, where Athenian fore-fathers liberally allowed divorce if the person filing for it had presented sufficient reasons to the magistrate. There are various types of divorces, including at-fault, no-fault and summary divorces. Statistics show that many marriages are destined to divorce (Gordon, 2007). The social a nd economic hardships young families go through to raise their status to that of the middle class and ensure that children born in the families have a bright future all depend on how stable such a family is. Marriage is no longer a private agreement between two individuals but a core social institution which participates in ensuring socio-economic stability of a nation. There exists substantial controversy and uncertainty about the effect of divorce on children and the parties themselves. Research indicates that children from separated families are more prone to socio-economic challenges that can affect their further life. Little research has been done on the overall impact that divorce poses to the society (Stevenson Wolfers, 2007). This paper will delineate the impact divorce has on a nation’s economy. A nation’s economy is impacted since divorces have some effects on the future of a labor force of a nation. Divorce has an impact on children and determines how they contribute to the economy. This paper will aim at establishing whether divorce is really necessary to end family disputes and whether the economy of a nation would be likely improved if fewer cases of divorce are witnessed. Hypothesis Marriage contributes to the social and human capital. Research has shown that intact family structures reduce government expenditures incurred through costly social programs. It has been estimated that divorce and children born out of wed lock use taxpayers money to a tune of approximately $112 billion annually and more than one trillion every decade. This paper studies the constraints the government undergoes to meet the needs of the separated families assuming that separation results in the additional negative effects on children and grownups being served under the tax payer funded social programs.Advertising Looking for proposal on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Literature Re view Divorce rates are said to have been doubled between 1960s and 1970s. This was the period which witnessed the rise of women’s liberation movements, the sexual revolution and the abolition of laws that restricted marriage between races. Today’s society experiences extremely high numbers of divorce cases. Divorce is often due to failure by both couples to continue being committed to their marital and family roles. Divorce dates from the ancient Mesopotamia, where Athenian’s fore-fathers liberally allowed couples to divorce if the party filing for divorce had presented sufficient reasons to the magistrate (Coontz, 2005). According to Stevenson and Wolfers (2007), couples decide to marry or live together if the gains of a marriage exceed those of being single. The gains can be in the form of group benefits such as rearing of children and the pooling of benefits, among others. The technological advances, changes in tastes, institutional and legal environments, an d definition of sexual relations have really altered gains from marriages. These have been identified as the main forces behind the separation of marriages (Stevenson Wolfers, 2007). With the introduction of family pills into the society, sex outside marriage with little or no fear of unwanted pregnancy progressed rapidly. One of the many effects of birth control methods increased blinded marriages with increased divorce rates. Introduction of household technology reduced the productivity of marriage. This made men and women have little to gain from marriages. Another important force was the reduction of the gender wage gap. This force was due to the declined occupational segregation and de-unionization. These trends declined the comparative advantages of wives at home. More so, it increased the share of men in home production and reduced the value of specialization within marriages (Blau Kahn, 2000). Governments have set regulations that define family as a legal institution. It d efines clearly who is to granted divorces, parental obligations and other subsequent rights. In the 1960s, a new wave of large-scale deregulation of family was embraced in the U.S. More so, the government’s role of establishing who is to marry or divorce has declined. The several legal changes have altered the basis of the marriage contract. This has been done by removing the ability to make inter temporal contracts within marriages and with the shift to right to divorce.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Divorce and its Economic Impact to the Society specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Many empirical studies investigating the increase of divorce rates have reached conflicting views. The most recent test has indicated a sharp increase in divorce cases in two years that followed unilateral divorce laws. There are also other findings by investigators owing that the reduction in female suicides and domestic vi olence indicated that the unilateral divorce laws had shifted bargaining power to women (Stevenson Wolfers, 2007). Another attributed force to increased divorce cases is the ease with which potential partners would meet. According to Mckinnish, sexually- integrated workplaces can increasingly create greater opportunities for opposite sex to meet. From her 1990 data analysis, she showed how occupation comprised of greater share for two individuals was likely to cause a marriage end. Another related shock in the future marital patterns showed how gender ratios had changed in colleges. Whilst in 1960s women were the minority, they now make up a clear majority (Goldin, Katz Kuziemko, 2006). The potential of internet increased efficiency in matching have provided another shock. Internet Tracking Poll in 2005 indicated that 3% of internet users’ couples met online. The advantage of online search is that it expands the set of potential partners and has higher degrees of anonymity. These forces have reduced the attractiveness of marriage (Stevenson Wolfers, 2007). Divorces have caused great impact on the children development. Children attain several development tasks related to psychological maturation. Divorce separation of parents impacts on the child’s cognitive development. Some of these impacts include the decreased terms of dependency, reduced sense of security and trust. Research showed kids go through huge trauma during a divorce. They develop depression, which can be felt through adolescence even into adulthood. Kids from separated families were found to have early maturation and sexual relations described by shorter unstable relationships. The impact was also shown to be huge on the partners themselves with others even undergoing depression and economic instability as well other constraints, which might affect the society at large. More so, divorces have been very costly on the nation’s economy. Studies have shown that $112 billion ta xpayers’ money is spent annually to fund social programs. This will amount to one trillion in a decade.Advertising Looking for proposal on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Other sectors adversely affected include high infant mortality, drug addiction and trouble with law or even teenage pregnancy. Some researchers have proposed the ways to curb divorces including combined parent education offering modules for reconciliation. Others propose delayed divorce processes to give couples time to reconsider reconciliation options (Doherty Sears, 2011). Design model This study will involve the examining of data which is both abstract and tangible. The variables involved in the study are also both abstract and tangible. The study can be defined as a correlation research as opposed to being a descriptive research. A descriptive research will only portray what is existent while a correlation research goes ahead to find out the relationship in the variables involved in the study (Cherry, 2011). The design model best fitting this study should, therefore, be comprehensive enough to capture all the elements involved in the study. As such, both quantitative and quali tative methods will be employed towards determining whether the hypothesis formulated holds any truth. As Weinreich (2011) pointed out, combining both the quantitative and qualitative methods in undertaking a research will result in gaining the best results. By using the quantitative methods, one is guaranteed of achieving â€Å"objectivity, generalizability and reliability† (Weinreich, 2011, p. 1). Weinreich further noted that, â€Å"techniques cover the ways research participants are selected randomly from the study population in an unbiased manner, the standardized questionnaire or intervention they receive and the statistical methods used to test predetermined hypotheses regarding the relationships between specific variables† (Weinreich, 2011, p. 1). Some of the data will be analyzed by the quantitative methods including the estimates of the funds directed to divorce related set ups. The study will use calculations to estimate costs borne by tax payers due to divor ce. The study will use available literature and information on estimated expenditure cost, and those provided by the government to compare and estimate the impact of divorce on the society. This will involve drawing up of various mathematical figures to make the analysis of this information possible. Data will be divided into appropriate different periods to make a chronological comparison a possibility. The study will also comprehensively employ the qualitative techniques to ensure that the study is wholesome. Information on the psychology says that children under due to divorces may be useful in the aspect of pointing out how the productivity is affected by the children. In conclusion, generally it can be argued that divorce cases have many consequences on the society as well as on the government. As noted above, families are building blocks for a society and therefore if families are broken all over the indication acquired is that that society is a broken one. The impact of divor ce on the nations is a very general study topic and thus an attempt will be made to ensure that all the information collected is tied down to the research question. Some changes are likely to be made in the course of undertaking the study to ensure that the activity yields information that is significant. References Blau, D., Kahn, L. (2000). Gender differences in play. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(4), 75-99. Cherry, K. (2011). Research Methods in Social Psychology. Psychology. Retrieved from: https://www.verywellmind.com/social-psychology-research-methods-2795902 Coontz, S. (2005). Marriage, a history: from obedience to intimacy, or how love conquered marriage. New York, NY: Viking. Doherty, W., Sears, L. (2011). Second chances: A proposal to reduce unnecessary divorce. New York, NY: Prentice Hall. Goldin, C., Katz, L., Kuziemko, I. (2006). Economic Perspectives. Journal of economic perspectives, 20(4), 133-56. Gordon, B. (2007). The effects of marriage and divorce on fa milies and children. Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.  Retrieved from: https://www.mdrc.org/publication/effects-marriage-and-divorce-families-and-children Stevenson, B., Wolfers, J. (2007). Marriage and Divorce: changes and their driving forces. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21(2), 27-52. Weinreich, K. (2011). Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in Social marketing Research. Weinreich Communications. Retrieved from: http://www.social-marketing.com/research.html This proposal on Divorce and its Economic Impact to the Society was written and submitted by user Kamden S. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Quotes About the Importance of Words

Quotes About the Importance of Words Words can incite anger or invoke passion. They can bring people together or tear them apart. Words can uphold the truth or nurture a lie. We use words to encompass history, to describe the natural universe, and even to conjure realistic visions of things that exist only in fantasy. In fact, in some mythology, spoken words are thought to be so powerful that they can create worlds, creatures, and human beings. Here are some quotes about words from writers, poets, political figures, philosophers, and other notable minds. All our words are but crumbs that fall down from the feast of the mind.- Kahlil Gibran (from Sand and Foam) As we must account for every idle word, so must we account for every idle silence.- Benjamin Franklin Be careful of the words you say,Keep them short and sweet.You never know, from day to day,Which ones youll have to eat.- Anonymous A great many people think that polysyllables are a sign of intelligence.- Barbara Walters But words are things, and a small drop of ink,Falling like dew, upon a thought, producesThat which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think.- George Gordon, Lord Byron By words we learn thoughts, and by thoughts we learn life.- Jean Baptiste Girard Colors fade, temples crumble, empires fall, but wise words endure.- Edward Thorndike Duty is the sublimest word in our language. Do your duty in all things. You cannot do more. You should never wish to do less.- Robert E. Lee For me, words are a form of action, capable of influencing change. Their articulation represents a complete, lived experience.- Ingrid Bengis The good man brings good things out of the good stored up in his heart, and the evil man brings evil things out of the evil stored up in his heart. For out of the overflow of his heart his mouth speaks.- Luke 6:45 Good words are worth much, and cost little.- George Herbert However many holy words you read,However many you speak,What good will they do youIf you do not act on upon them?- Buddha I like good strong words that mean something.- Louisa May Alcott (from Little Women) If language is as inextricably tied up with consciousness as it seems to be, then the continuing diminishment of our inclination to use it to express in letters the times in which we live could mean that an element of human consciousness itself is on the verge of disappearing.- Anonymous If words are to enter mens minds and bear fruit, they must be the right words shaped cunningly to pass mens defenses and explode silently and effectually within their minds.- J. B. Phillips If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart.- Nelson Mandela If you would be pungent, be brief; for it is with words as with sunbeams- the more they are condensed, the deeper they burn.- Robert Southey In a sense, words are encyclopedias of ignorance because they freeze perceptions at one moment in history and then insist we continue to use these frozen perceptions when we should be doing better.- Edward de Bono It has not been for nothing that the word has remained mans principal toy and tool: without the meanings and values it sustains, all mans other tools would be worthless.- Lewis Mumford It seems to me that those songs that have been any good, I have nothing much to do with the writing of them. The words have just crawled down my sleeve and come out on the page.- Joan Baez Its always a bit of a struggle to get the words right, whether were a Hemingway or a few fathoms below his level.- Rene J. Cappon Kind words are a creative force, a power that concurs in the building up of all that is good, and energy that showers blessings upon the world.- Lawrence G. Lovasik The most valuable of all talents is that of never using two words when one will do.- Thomas Jefferson My task which I am trying to achieve is by the power of the written word, to make you hear, to make you feel- it is, before all, to make you see. That- and no more, and it is everything.- Joseph Conrad Often when I write I am trying to make words do the work of line and color. I have the painters sensitivity to light. Much ... of my writing is verbal painting.- Elizabeth Bowen One of the hardest things in life is having words in your heart that you cant utter.- James Earl Jones Our words should be purrs instead of hisses.- Kathrine Palmer Peterson Poetry is a deal of joy and pain and wonder, with a dash of the dictionary.- Kahlil Gibran The real art of conversation is not only to say the right thing at the right place but to leave unsaid the wrong thing at the tempting moment.- Dorothy Nevill The six most important words: I admit I made a mistake.The five most important words: You did a good job.The four most important words: What is your opinion?The three most important words: If you please.The two most important words: Thank you.The one least important word: I.- Anonymous So difficult it is to show the various meanings and imperfections of words when we have nothing else but words to do it with.- John Locke The teachings of elegant sayings should be collected when one can. For the supreme gift of words of wisdom, any price will be paid.- Siddha Nagarjuna To me, the greatest pleasure of writing is not what its about, but the music the words make.- Truman Capote Words are the model, words are the tools, words are the boards, words are the nails.- Richard Rhodes Watch your thoughts, they become your wordsWatch your words, they become your actionsWatch your actions, they become your habitsWatch your habits, they become your characterWatch your character, it becomes your destiny.- Anonymous When I read great literature, great drama, speeches, or sermons, I feel that the human mind has not achieved anything greater than the ability to share feelings and thoughts through language.- James Earl Jones A word is deadWhen it is said,Some say.I say it justBegins to liveThat day.- Emily Dickinson (A Word is Dead) Words are chameleons, which reflect the color of their environment.- Learned Hand Words are not as satisfactory as we should like them to be, but, like our neighbors, we have got to live with them and must make the best and not the worst of them.- Samuel Butler Words are potent weapons for all causes, good or bad.- Manly Hall Words are the most powerful thing in the universe... Words are containers. They contain faith, or fear, and they produce after their kind.- Charles Capps Words do two major things: They provide food for the mind and create light for understanding and awareness.- Jim Rohn Words, like nature, half reveal and half conceal the soul within.- Alfred, Lord Tennyson Words may show a mans wit, but actions his meaning.- Benjamin Franklin Words- so innocent and powerless as they are, as standing in a dictionary, how potent for good and evil they become, in the hands of one who knows how to combine them!- Nathaniel Hawthorne A writer lives in awe of words for they can be cruel or kind, and they can change their meanings right in front of you. They pick up flavors and odors like butter in a refrigerator.- Anonymous You see these dictators on their pedestals, surrounded by the bayonets of their soldiers and the truncheons of their police. Yet in their hearts there is unspoken- unspeakable!- fear. They are afraid of words and thoughts! Words spoken abroad, thoughts stirring at home, all the more powerful because they are forbidden. These terrify them. A little mouse- a little tiny mouse!- of thought appears in the room, and even the mightiest potentates are thrown into panic.- Winston Churchill

Gender Role Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Gender Role - Essay Example "Slavery is terrible for men; but it is far more terrible for women" (Jacobs, 2003). Through the character of Linda, Harriet Jacobs depicts that women sexual abuse and physical violence are the main forms of humiliation and oppression. Sexual abuse of a slave woman is the expression of male's power and dominance of the owner. Jacobs describes that socially slave women are used to be oppressed. They have no rights to protect their dignity and freedom used to cultural norms followed by generations. "But I do earnestly desire to arouse the women of the North to a realizing sense of the condition of two millions of women at the South, still in bondage, suffering what I suffered, and most of them far worse" (Jacobs, 2003). Similar to Jacobs, Frederick Douglass discusses the role of gender in society and its impact on relations between a slave and owner. Gender roles in 'Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass' shape not only how people identify themselves and view the world but also how others identify and relate to them and how they are positioned within society. "Slaveholders have ordained, and by law established, that the children of slave women shall in all cases follow the condition of their mothers" (Douglass, 1997). Both Jacobs and Douglass portray that women are traditionally associated with childbearing, child rearing, emotional caretaking, and responsibility for the physical maintenance of the household. In contrast, men are associated with the activities of wage labor, physical prowess, intellectual achievements, and political agency. "Slaveholders pride themselves upon being honorable men; but if you were to hear the enormous lies they tell their slaves, you would have small respect fo r their veracity" (Douglass, 1997).This gender labeling is so strong that even when women work, they typically do so in areas regarded as "women's work". Also, "Women are considered of no value, unless they continually increase their owner's stock. They are put on a par with animals" (Jacobs, 2003). Labor markets are thus segregated horizontally by gender, with women and men differentiated in occupational roles. Dominance of men adds aggression and cruelty to cultural dimensions and values. Both narratives under analysis describe masculine societies. Masculinity describes a society in which men are expected to be assertive, competitive, and concerned with material success, and women fulfill the role of nurturer and are concerned with issues such as the welfare of children. Lack of respect towards women results in norms and values which reflect gender roles. It means that men play a dominant position as keepers of traditions and customers in contrast to women who perform a reproduction function only. Jacobs portrays that even free women suffer from male oppression and low social roles. "Mrs. Flint, like many southern women, was totally deficient in energy. She had not strength to superintend her household affairs" (Jacobs, 2003). Jacobs chose to write about gender roles faced with extreme violence and oppression during her young years. She underlines that emotional abuse is socially accepted form of violence. The consequence of emotional abuse is that it causes the greatest distress resulted in betrayal of trust and responsibility involved. Douglass writes about gender roles

Applying The Western Model Of Government On Countries Around The World Essay

Applying The Western Model Of Government On Countries Around The World - Essay Example If in the West the non-fulfillment of such standards are interpreted to basically indicate government failure, applying the same Western model in assessing another country's government would also require the same standards to be met in order for that government to be deemed successful. In the Western model of Democracy, for example, due process of law, respect for human rights and individual liberty, and the general population's participation in the democratic electoral process are among the standards that have thus far been raised by the Western school of thought to measure a country's level of democracy. When non-Western Democratic countries and governments, therefore, fail to provide adequate evidence that these specific standards are being met, these countries risk immediately being condemned by the global society as undemocratic. Organizations and individuals insisting on the application of Western models of government and the implementation of Westerns standards deduced from such models have thus been quick to condemn any and each country that have failed to meet these Western standards. Repressive regimes that fail to meet Western standards of Democracy, and who have a history, for example, of human rights violations, staggering judicial systems, and a weak electoral process, have thus been pressured in numerous instances to reform and meet these Western standards in order to gain the acceptance and approval of the dominant West. To be sure, the notion that a universal set of standards can be deduced from Western models of government and applied indiscriminately to all countries in the World, rests on some very thin assumptions-that there is only one path towards the development of a specific form of government, and that a country's progress down this path is but a naturally occurring process, one that is not influenced by internal and external factors. We can see these assumptions more clearly for what they are if we investigate the global movement towards Democracy. The application of a Western model of Democracy for all countries, for example, presumes that a country's progress towards democracy is a naturally occurring phenomenon, one that is dictated upon by a single process and occurs naturally without regard for a country's socio-political status nor influenced by any external and internal forces. Basically, this means, that countries would generally develop into democracies as they progress regardless of any internal and external pressure or movement. This has largely been disproved by numerous studies, most notably, an examination conducted in 1996 which showed that 58 out of the 61 democratic countries that were studied became democratic unnaturally and that democratic progress was as a matter of fact induced by way of economic sanctions and conditional aid that demanded for democratic legislation. (Whitehead, 1996) With today's governments leaning decisively towards Democracy and democratic forms of governance, the implementation of a universal model of democracy-one that is produced and upheld by the dominant West-presumes that for a country to successfully implement and uphold a democratic form of

Maria Montessori Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Maria Montessori - Essay Example I believe that children should be educated as per their capabilities and the lower classes should not be left out from the gift of education. Nowadays it is seen that money has become a source for education and many of the gifted individuals are sidelined only because they do not have enough money. Plato has given philosophies on education which clearly show that people should be emphasizing on the importance of education. An idealistic society always has a great educational background and thus education can be considered as the foremost factor of improvisation in this world. This essay would further revolve around the theories of Plato on education and its relation to my personal philosophy when it comes to education (Blackburn 2007; Mill 1867). Education is the key to success in this world as believed by many but it is still seen that many individuals are left behind when it comes to this success factor. Many of the developing countries are still lagging behind in their rate of lit eracy only because individuals in these developing countries do not have a proper curriculum for education. ... emselves the supreme leader of the subject without any competition in their field of subject and this can be considered as a loss to the pillars of education. Many teachers these days do not like being questioned about their subject as they think that they have all that is required in that subject. In other words these teachers consider themselves the ‘God’ of the subject. But this clearly can be said to be wrong as no one in this world has all the relevant knowledge about a particular subject. Plato in his theory of education stated that teachers should always be willing to learn in their lives and they should always be willing to share their knowledge for the greater good of the society. The teachers should not teach to earn but should rather make a primary goal of educating people. Educating individuals is a moral aspect of life which all the teachers should fulfil with respect to the morality in the society. I personally believe that the teachers should teach only to educate individuals so that these individuals can make a difference in the society. Secondly the teacher should be always willing to learn more from his students and thus cross questioning in lectures is an important way through which the teacher can learn even more (Blackburn 2007). Plato’s theory of education was widely based on the life stages in which he termed every life stage as a learning stage. It started from children of six years old to adults of 50 year and above. He believed that in every stage of life individuals are striving to learn more so that they can exist in the society. Similarly I believe that one should never give up learning but should rather dedicate his life to it so that he can learn from every aspect of life until he enters his grave. Plato believed that expertise and

Beam Adaptive Algorithms For Smart Antennas Computer Science Essay

Beam Adaptive Algorithms For Smart Antennas Computer Science Essay Smart antennas employed in space division multiple access systems can cater the high demand in terms of capacity in mobile applications without further increase in radio frequency spectrum allocation. Furthermore, smart antennas provide better quality of service (QoS) and better coverage. Therefore, beam adaptive algorithms used in smart antenna systems are of great interests. 1.2 Project Aims The project aim is to study and understand the adaptive algorithms for beamforming for Smart Antenna Systems and to develop research skills, by reading research papers and journal papers related to the topic. Moreover, to produce the technical draft that contains the analysis, results and discussion of several adaptive algorithms employed in Smart Antenna Systems. The research work conducted and a simulation will provide the better understanding of the subject and can be a possible contribution to the existing work. 1.3 Project Objectives The project objective is to attempt systematic comparison of the performance of different Adaptive Algorithms for beamforming for Smart Antenna System. The algorithms that will be under investigation in this project will be training sequence algorithms like Recursive Least Squares (RLS) and Least Mean Squares (LMS), and Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA). Simulations will be done to find out which algorithms are best for beamforming i.e. to form main lobes towards desired user and for convergence rate. The comparison of algorithms will be made on the basis of formation of main lobe and the convergence rate. The effect of jammers in algorithms will also be studied. 1.4 Project Outcomes The outcome of the project is come up with simulation software that will calculate the parameters of Smart Antenna and tell us which algorithm performs better in a particular situation. Moreover to prepare a research report that contains critical analysis different beam adaptive algorithms. 1.5 Structure of the report The first chapter of the final report is the Introduction which describes the motivation for research, project aims and objectives. The second chapter is the Literature review. The overview of recent work conducted in this domain and the brief summary of several research papers studied for conducting this research has been presented. Reading list is appended in the references section. Third chapter is the introduction to antennas and smart antennas. The fundamentals parameters of antennas and smart antennas are briefly described. Fourth chapter is on smart antenna system. Types of smart antennas and their comparison are done in detail. In fifth chapter description about the signal processing algorithms is presented. Lastly given are the results and conclusion. Chapter 2: Literature Review Smart antenna is the most efficient leading innovation for maximum capacity and improved quality and coverage [1]. They can adapt to varying traffic requirements dynamically. Smart antennas radiate narrow beam to serve different users and are normally employed at base stations. The complex weight computations that are based on different criteria are integrated in the signal processor in the form of software algorithms [3]. Due to the rapid growing demand in mobile applications not only for capacity but for high quality of service (QoS) and better coverage without increasing the radio frequency spectrum allocation the wireless systems that uses fixed antenna systems will no longer be in use [3] discuss the need for smart antennas in space division multiple access systems. The article focused on adaptive beam forming approach based on smart antennas the adaptive algorithms that are employed to compute the complex weight are discussed and LMS and RLS in particular. The fact that error c omputed from the filter at time n is used to provide the filter coefficient at time n+1 provides a nontraditional way to understand adaptive algorithms. [2] describe the approach of seeing classical adaptive algorithm like LMS, RLS, CMA, Decision directed) as recursive structures. [4] Explain the normalized least mean square (NLMS) algorithm for smart antenna system. The algorithm was implemented on the StarCore SC3400 DSP core and the performance was evaluated on MSC8144 DSP and the antenna coverage pattern was obtained and analyzed to find towards the desired signal source. With adaptive beamforming algorithm to name LMS for smart antenna the downlink multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) multi-carrier code division multiple access system is proposed [5]. [1] Describes the sequential Studies of beamforming algorithms for smart antenna systems. 2.1 Scope of Smart Antennas Smart antennas assured to award the significant increment in the capacity of system and its performance in the wireless communication system [11]. Which will eventually lead into increase profits for the telecommunications companies and also a decline in blocked and dropped calls. Its been about 45 years Antenna was first used in applications related to radar communication in the form of fixed array. In later years many researches on antenna helped into smart antennas and tiled the way for their uses in commercial wireless systems [12]. These are the main reasons smart antennas got so much interest over the few years. At present the application of smart antennas are predominant at the mobile base stations due to compact area and processing power requirements [13]. Currently, a lot of research is going on the mobile terminal based smart antennas. In the coming future we can expect smart antenna skills to be present at the base station and mobile terminal too. Chapter 3: Introduction to Antennas and Smart Antenna 3.1 Antenna According to IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antenna, it is defined as a means for radiating or receiving radio waves. 3.2 Fundamental parameters of Antenna The fundamental parameters of Antenna are: Radiation pattern Radiation intensity Directive gain and directivity Power gain and Radiation efficiency Front to Back ratio Antenna beamwidth Antenna beam efficiency 3.2.1Radiation Pattern Radiation pattern show the angular variation of field strength. They are drawn at some distance r proportional to field intensity in the direction ÃŽÂ ¸ and à Ã¢â‚¬  . Normalized Field Pattern: It is obtained by dividing the field component by its maximum value. It is dimensionless. EÃŽÂ ¸(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) = EÃŽÂ ¸(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) / EÃŽÂ ¸(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) max Power Radiation Pattern: Power density Pd is defined as power flow per unit area and is given by: Pd(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) =1/2*[E (ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  )] 2/ÃŽÂ ·0 Pattern may also be expressed in terms of power per unit solid angle .The normalized power pattern can also be expressed in terms of this parameter as the ratio of radiation intensity U(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) as function of angle to its max value. Pn(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) = Pd(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) / Pd max(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) The co-ordinates are ÃŽÂ ¸ and dB are used to draw the pattern and calculate by following relation: dB= 10log10Pn(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) 3.2.2 Radiation Intensity The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the radiation intensity U. 3.2.3 Directive Gain and Directivity For omnidirectional antenna: the power density at all the points on the surface of a sphere will be same. Pavg = Prad/4à Ã¢â€š ¬r2 The directive gain is defined as the ratio of the power density Pd(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) to the average power radiated. For isotropic antenna, the value of directive gain is unity. The directive gain can be defined as a measure of the concentration of the radiated power in a particular direction (ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) . The ratio of the maximum power density to the average power radiated is called maximum directive gain or directivity of the antenna. GDmax = Pdmax/Pavg 3.2.4 Power Gain and Radiation efficiency The relation between input power and power radiated is given as: Prad=ÃŽÂ ·r Pin ÃŽÂ ·r=Prad/ Pin Pin=Prad +Ploss ÃŽÂ ·r=Prad/(Prad +Ploss) The power radiated and the ohmic power loss can be expressed in terms of r.m.s. current as: ÃŽÂ ·r=Rrad/(Rrad +Rloss) The ratio of the power radiated in a particular direction (ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) to the actual power input to the antenna is called power gain of antenna. 3.2.5 Front to Back ratio (FBR) It is the ratio of the power radiated in the desired direction to the power radiated in the opposite direction. FBR = Power radiated in desired direction/Power radiated in opposite direction FBR depends on frequency of operation, spacing between antenna elements (inversely proportional) and electrical length of the parasitic elements of the antenna. FBR is an important consideration especially in receiving antennas 3.2.6 Antenna Beamwidth Antenna beamwidth is the measure of the directivity of the antenna. The antenna beamwidth is an angular width in degrees. It is measured on a radiation pattern on a major lobe. 3.2.7 Beam efficiency Total beam area ÃŽÂ ©A consists of the main beam area ÃŽÂ ©M plus the minor lobe area ÃŽÂ ©m. ÃŽÂ ©A= ÃŽÂ ©M+ ÃŽÂ ©m So Beam Efficiency is, M= ÃŽÂ ©M/ ÃŽÂ ©A Stray Factor: The ratio of minor lobe ÃŽÂ ©m area to the total beam area ÃŽÂ ©A is called stray factor. Em= ÃŽÂ ©m/ ÃŽÂ ©A EM + Em= 1 3.3 Smart Antenna The smart antenna is defined as an antenna array system that is supported by processing system that deals with the received and transmitted signal by the array using proper array algorithms to advance wireless system performance. [4] Numbers of distributive antenna elements are combined to make arrays of antennas called smart antenna. The different signals collected by individual antenna are calculated in such a manner that increases the signal strength of desired signal and reduces interference from other signals. [12] A smart antenna can be observed as a combination of antennas, whose transmitted or received signals are processed using smart algorithms. These smart algorithms make antenna work efficiently, and reliable in communication [13]. Main purpose of smart antenna is that the signal comes from the source hit the target in that way if the target is moving the antenna is such a smart and intelligent that it would change its direction according to the target movement and the main lobe of the antenna must be toward the target so that the maximum strength of the signal strikes the target. Mostly Smart antennas are being used in wireless communication systems to provide interference reduction and enhance user capacity and the data rates [6]. 3.4 Uses of Smart Antenna Smart antennas are considered useful in the wireless communication systems. The area coverage and the capacity of a system are increased by Smart antennas. Maximum data rate is increased by using smart antennas in multipath and diminish fading due to the terminating the component of multipath. One of its most useful applications is direction finding with the applications including emergency services and traffic monitoring [11]. In areas with less population, extended coverage is predominant in those areas than increased capacity. I such areas the gain provided by the antennas can extend the range covered by a cell and hence more users can communicate with less system capacity than any other typical antenna. It is used for the interference reduction and rejection as well. Finding the location of user will be a useful application of smart antenna, geo-locations of user and to make downlink beam forming easy [14]. Smart antennas are currently used in Radars, Radio astronomy and mostly used in cellular systems to keep the system speed equal with the number of increasing subscribers. It is also used in defense for safe communication purpose. 3.5CHARACTERISTICS OF SMART ANTENNA There are four main characteristics of smart antenna, DOA (direction of arrival) evaluation Beam forming, antenna diversity beam-width 3.5.1 DIRECTION OF ARRIVAL / ANGLE OF ARRIVAL A measure of the direction of the propagation of electro magnetic radiation upon arrival at a receiver; it is the angle between the plan of the phase front and some plan of reference, usually the horizontal, at the receiver antenna. [9] Direction of arrival indicates the direction from which usually a signal arrives at a point [3]. We can guess the direction of arrival of the signal by using different techniques like multiple signal classification. In this technique an algorithm is used to for frequency estimation and the location of emitter, matrix pencil method or their derivatives. [9] Usage Geodesic location or Geo-location of the cell phones is the main application of direction of arrival nowadays [9].Multiple base stations calculate the angle of arrival of the cell phone signal and this information is combined to locate the cell phone anywhere on the earth. It is generally used to locate the pirate or military radio transmission point. In submarines acoustics, angle of arrival is the method to localize objects with active and passive ranging [9]. 3.5.2 BEAM-FORMING Beam forming is a technique of digital signal processing and its is used for directional signal transmission or reception form the preferred signal direction as compared to some undesired direction [3]. It mean that the techniques which we used have the capability to make the radiation pattern of the antenna by constructive and destructive interference for reception and transmission and to accept moving beams in the direction of preferred signal and put nulls in the direction of interfering signals. This mean due to this co-channel and interference reduce and antenna gain is increased in the direction of desired signal [13]. Figure 3.1 These rebounds from different surfaces can set up time delays, attenuations, phase shifts, and distortions that can interfere with each other at the receiver end of the antenna. It can be set by the digital signal processing techniques used in smart antenna system [15]. 3.5.3 ANTENNA DIVERSITY Antenna diversity uses more then two antennas to develop the quality and dependability of a wireless link [3]. Specially in the areas where LOS is not clear between transmitter and receiver. Before reaching at the receiver end signal is reflected along several paths. This result in introducing phase shift, time delays, attenuation, and distortion which results in the interference between signal arriving before and after the particular signal [9].As two or more antennas receive several observations of the same signal they will calculate the most strengthen signal give the output. 3.5.4 BEAM-WIDTH It means the half-power beam-width [7]. The maximum radiation strength is found, and then the points on both side of the maximum, represent half power of the maximum strength are located. The distance between the half power points is known as the beam-width [16].Half of the power expressed in decibels is -3dB, so half power beam-width is often referred to as the 3dB beam-width. We considered both horizontal and vertical beam-widths. [6] 3.6 TYPES OF SMART ANTENNAS There are two major types of smart antenna switched beam smart antenna and adaptive array smart antenna. 3.6.1 SWITCHED BEAM SMART ANTENNA There are different permanent beam patterns presented in switched beam system. A decision is made as to which beam to be taken, at any given point in time, depend upon the necessities of the system [3]. 3.6.2 ADAPTIVE ARRAY SMART ANTENNA It allows the antenna to focus the beam to any direction of direction of desired signal continuously ignoring interfering signals. Beam direction can be estimated using the direction of arrival (DOA) estimation methods [3]. 3.7 ADVANTAGES For the most part smart antennas are employed at the base station in the mobile network to improve system capacity. Capacity means the number of the users that can be handled in a system. Using of Omni-directional antennas originate co-channel interference when two users use the same band of frequency that finally limits the user capacity in the system [8]. In case of smart antennas beams are focused towards the desired user minimize interference to other users using the same frequency band. 0: Figure 3.2 It helps against multipath fading noise which improves dependability of received signal. Reduced power consumption for cell phones, low probability of interception and detection improved location estimation and improved range of reception [1]. 3.8 DISADVANTAGE Most major disadvantages of smart antenna is in their design and completion in hardware. Multi RF chains can boost the price and make the transceiver bulkier [4]. Most of the devices in the making of a typical antenna used non-linear devices and using smart antenna also increases the components used. If not checked properly, this affects the performance of the antenna [15]. As the data bandwidth required for the digital signal processing increases with the number of antenna elements used. This can limit the data rate for different applications Chapter 4 SMART ANTENNA SYSTEM 4.1 INTRODUCTION Smart Antenna System is combination of multiple antennas which Transmit or Receive Signals using an Adaptation Algorithm [4]. A smart antenna system is combination of many antennas elements with a signal receiving and transmitting ability to optimize its radiation and reception pattern robotically in reaction to the signal environment [10]. 4.2 TYPES OF SMART ANTENNA SYSTEMS There are mainly two ways to implement antennas that dynamically change their antenna radiation pattern to minimize interference or multipath affects by increasing coverage area and range. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Switched beam: There are finite numbers of fixed patterns which are defined by the system (sectors) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Adaptive arrays: There are an infinite number of patterns (scenario-based) which are adjusted in real time The Switched beam approach is easy and simple then the adaptive approach. It increases the network capacity as compared to the usual Omni-directional antenna systems. In this technique, an antenna array produces over lapping beams that cover the neighboring area as in the figure [17]. When a signal is coming and detected, the base station determine the beam that is best associated in the signal-of-interest direction and then switch that beam toward the user for communication [6]. 0: Figure 4.1 [17] The Adaptive array system is efficient then the switched array technique [2]. A mobile user is tracked by this system constantly by routing the main beam towards the destination and at the same time sending no signal in the direction of interfering signals like switched beam. 0: Figure 4.2 [17] 4.2.1 SWITCHED BEAM SYSTEMS Switched beam antenna systems make many fixed beams with finely tuned sensitivity in particular directions [17]. These antenna systems detect strength of signal, choose one from numerous already determined, fixed beams, and switch his beam from one beam to another as the user moves during the sector [11]. The output of many antennas combine through Switched beam systems in such a way that it form finely directional beams with more selectivity than can be achieve with usual, single-element antenna technique. 4.2.1.1 WORKING In this type of adaptive approach in reality did not steer or scan the beam in the direction of the desired signal [17]. Switched beam use an antenna array which radiates a number of overlapping permanent beams covering a elected angular area. The directional beam leads to increase the factor of a frequency reuse in channel by decreasing possible interference and it also increases the range [14]. These antennas system not have a uniform gain in all directions but when they are compared to simple antenna system they have more gain or increased gain in the desired directions. The Switched beam antenna has a switching method that enables the system to select and then switch the desired beam which gives the best response for a mobile user. The selection is generally based on maximum received power for user [9]. 0: Figure 4.3 [3] A usual switched beam system for a base station consists of many antennas with each array covering a certain sector in cell. Take an example of switched beam-forming system below [7]. It consists of a phase shifting network, which forms many beams look in certain directions. The RF switch targets the correct beam in the direction of interest. The measurement for selecting of the correct beam is done by the control logic unit. The control logic unit is controlled by an algorithm which scans all the beams and then selects that beam which is strongest signal based on a measurement calculated by the algorithm. 0: Figure 4.4 [17] This technique is not good when interference is high this technique is simple in operation. Let us consider an example where User 1 is at the side-edge of the beam receiving low power which is entertained by this beam [6]. If there is a second user were at the direction of the null then there will be no interference but if the second user also moves into the direction where user 1 is located then there will be interference occur therefore the switched beam system is suitable where there is no interference [17] 4.2.2 ADAPTIVE ARRAY ANTENNAS Switched beam systems only give a limited performance improvement when compared to common antenna systems in wireless communication [3]. Greater improved performance can be achieved by using superior signal processing technique to practice the information achieved by the antenna arrays. The adaptive array system is Opposite to switched beam systems, they are smarter because they are able to react to the changing RF environment. They have a huge amount of radiation patterns as compared to fixed finite patterns in switched beam systems to adjust in the changing radio frequency environment [9]. An Adaptive array is just like a switched beam system which use number of antennas but they are controlled by signal processing [17]. This signal processing moves the radiation beam towards a desired user as he changes his direction and ii limit the interference happen from other users by launch nulls in their directions. This is shown in figure below [17]. http://i.cmpnet.com/embedded/gifs/2005/0503/0503feat1fig2.jpg 0: Figure 4.5 [17] 4.3 COMPARISON Here are the differences between switched bean array and adaptive beam array 4.3.1 SWITCHED BEAM SYSTEM It uses many preset directional beams with slim beam-widths. The necessary phase shifts be provide by normal preset phase shifting networks e.g. the butler matrix [11]. They do not need difficult algorithms, easy algorithms are used for selection of beam It need only reasonable relations between mobile and base station as compared to adaptive array system [15]. Because low technology is used it has minor price and complication. Mixing is easy and cheap into existing cellular system. It give important increase in coverage and capacity compare normal antenna based systems [6]. Since many slim beams are used, normal intra-cell hand-offs occur between beam when a mobile moves from one beam to another [15]. It does not make a distinction between direct signal and interfering signal this leading to undesired improvement of the interfering signal more than the desired signal [6]. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Switched beam systems offers limited co-channel interference control as compared to the adaptive array system. 4.3.2 ADAPTIVE ARRAY SYSTEM A whole adaptive system; moves the beam towards desired signal and put nulls toward interfering signal directions [17]. It is implemented on DSP technology [17]. To steer the beam and the nulls complicated adaptive algorithm is required [6]. Rejection capably of interference is much better then the switching beams system [15]. It is difficult to impose on existing systems, i.e. up gradation is hard and costly. Since nonstop moving of the beam is required as the user moves, high contact between the mobile and base station is required [17]. It provides improved coverage and improved capacity because of improved interference elimination as compare to the Switched beam. It can either decline multipath components or add them by correcting the delays to improve the signal quality[6]. 4.4 ANTENNAS SMARTNESS Smart antenna systems using these adaptive systems are quite smart in the true sense and that is why they are referred as smart antennas [17]. The smartness of these systems is due to the intelligent processor using digital processing techniques which are integrated in these systems. These signal processing techniques use complex algorithms which are our main concern in our project [11]. As modern world is using advanced technology in different fields, smart antenna also comes with such type of digital formation algorithms that operate the signals in accurate and flexible manner. On the way to the smart antenna, the signal is received, converted and modulated for transmission into digital signal and at the other end it is reconverted in analog information [5]. 4.4.1 BASIC MECHANISM There are a lot of function a smart antenna can perform on the bases of techniques used for desired scenario. Some of them major functions smart antenna can perform are listed below First: Smart antenna can locate the direction as well as the angle of arrival of all the incoming signals [16]. Whether they are interfering in the signal of our interest or they are same signals arriving at the antenna from different directions after reflection from different surfaces. Their direction is estimated by the processing techniques used in smart antennas. Secondly: The signal of our interest can separated from the cluster of all the incoming signals using smart antenna systems. Lastly a beam is moving in the direction of the wanted signal and the user is traced when he moves in the area and placing noting at interfering signal directions by continually updating the weights [17]. It is pretty obvious that the direction of radiation beam of the main lobe in an array depends upon the phase difference between the elements of the array. Thus it is possible to constantly move the main beam in any direction by adjusting the phase difference between the elements. The same concept is used in adaptive array systems in which the phase is tuned to attain highest radiation in the most wanted direction. 4.5 ADAPTIVE ALGORITHM CLASSIFICATIONS The adaptive algorithms can be classify into category base on different approach given below Continuous adaptation: The algorithms based on this technique fine-tune the weights as the arriving data is sampled and continue updating it in such a way that it converges to an finest solution. This approach is suit able when the signal information is varying with time. Examples: The Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm and the Recursive Least square (RLS) algorithm [17]. Block adaptation: The algorithms based on this technique calculate the weights depend on the approximation achieve from a temporary chunk of data [3]. This method can be used in a non-stationary situation provided the weights are calculated from time to time. Example: The Sample Matrix Inversion (SMI) algorithm [17]. Reference signal based algorithms: These types of algorithms worked on the principal of minimization of the mean square error between the received signal and the original signal. Hence it is necessary that an original signal is available which has high relationship with the desired signal [17]. Examples: The Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm, The Recursive Least square (RLS) algorithm [17]. Blind adaptive algorithms: These algorithms do not want any original signal information. They are generating the necessary ordinal signal from the received signal to get the desired signal. Examples: The Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA). CHAPTER 5ALGORITHMS It is obvious that themselves antennas or not much intelligent to perform such.It is the importance of antenna system which is such clever in aspect of advanced signal processing algorithms. In order to use the smart antenna to its full smart techniques superior and computationally smart algorithms must be used. There are number of algorithms which are optimized and specialized for different smart antenna system and for different scenarios. For this purpose here are the few algorithms we have studied till the day to get a brief idea about the smart antenna systems are given below. LMS (Least Mean Squares) RLS (Recursive Least Squares) CMA (Constant Modulus Algorithm) We will try to give a logical comparison on the performance of different Adaptive Algorithms for beam forming for our Smart Antenna. In this study we have exposed that these algorithms RLS and LMS are best for making beam forming like main lobe towards desired user but they have boundaries towards reject interference. In case of CMA has improved response towards beam forming and it gives improved results for interference rejection, but there is a problem the Bit Error Rate (BER) is greatest and high in case of single antenna element in CMA. It is confirmed that convergence rate of RLS is faster than LMS so RLS is proved the best choice for us. The effect of changing step size for LMS algorithm has also been studied. 5.1 CMA (CONSTANT MODULUS ALGORITHM) CMA is based on those methods which are old but many of them are modified or completely changed techniques. This is popular algorithm and we are using this algorithm for blind adaptive array processing for beam pattern. But there is a problem with this algorithm it has low convergence rate because it is a type of instant gradient searching method depend on performance surface. Later some enhanced algorithms such as orthogonal constant modulus (OCMA) and least square constant modulus algorithm (LSCMA) are proposed [4].OCMA use the Newton algorithm and LSCMA is a type of block-update interactive algorithm. Both use estimation of revision of covariance matrix. This means high calculation complexity and convergence rate is improved. But they will not converge when covariance matrix is positive and singular. Faster convergence rate, constant convergence steps, lower computational complexity and better numerical stability will be achieved with instant gradient searching and conjugate gradi ent algorithm [2]. Conclusion A constant modulus algorithm based on modified conjugate gradient for adaptive array processing. CMA algorithm has the similar performance as high convergence rate algorithm such as LSCMA; there is an advantage that they do not need to perform matrix inversion and its performance is improved then other type of conjugate gradient algorithms 5.2 LMS (Least Mean Squares) and RLS (Recursive Least Squares) An adaptive algorithm has a natural recursive formation even in the case of a limited impulse response modelization. As the error

The New England Lobstering Profession: Components and Optimal conditions for a Successful Harvest :: Essays Papers

The New England Lobstering Profession: Components and Optimal conditions for a Successful Harvest Imagine the aroma of ocean air, fog horns sounding, sea birds singing and coast winds blowing while you float across the waves of the Atlantic Ocean in Maine. Lobstering thrives in the Gulf of Maine due in large part to favorable lobster habitat. Rocky coasts and cobbley bottoms allow young lobsters to hide from their predators such as small coastal fish, crabs and even other lobsters. Interestingly, the gulf of Maine has seen a huge increase in lobster populations in the 1990s. This population pressure is causing young lobsters to move from secure cobble to the Gulf’s abundant sandy bottoms. Consequently, lobstermen are following. The Maine lobster, a crustacean from the family Homarus americanus, is found on the east coast of the Atlantic from Newfoundland to North Carolina. It is shy, nocturnal and armed to the teeth. Lobsters are found throughout the Gulf of Maine, both out at sea and near the coast. They are one of the highest value commercial species fished for in the Gulf of Maine states and provinces. Once considered a trash fish, suitable only for indentured servants and prisoners, lobsters have become a popular delicacy on many a seaside diner’s plate. Maine lobster is easily distinguishable from the â€Å"spiny† lobster commonly called rock lobster caught along the southern Atlantic Coast and the coast of California by its large heavy claws. The spiny lobster has tiny claws and is usually marketed as uncooked frozen tails. Because of its sweet, delicious flavor and tender texture, many believe that Maine lobster is the world’s most prized catch. Lobsters take about five to seven years to reach marketable size. The females produce eggs each summer when water temperatures reach 56 degrees Fahrenheit or higher. As many as 10,000 eggs are fertilized as they are extruded onto the females stomach. Here, they lay in a tight bundle until they hatch nine to ten months later. As larvae, lobsters travel great distances. The tiny larvae feed and swim vertically for thirty to fifty days in the water, carried by currents. After this stage, larvae settle down to become bottom dwelling lobsters. As they mature, they use their claws to crack open the shells of snails and mollusks and will eat either algae or remains of dead animals as well.

Paleolithic Societies

Although the San and the Chumash were both hunter-gatherers, their culture and lifestyle had significant differences. Many cultures around the world had their fair share of differences. If you look closer though, you can find certain patterns that occur in many of the first societies that emerged in the world. Even these days, you can find the same types of patterns in people. The San lived in Southern Africa. They are also known as Bushmen, Sho, Barwa, Kung, or Khwe.Their lifestyle consisted of much leisure time, and the children did nothing but play. Women were greatly respected and admired in the San culture. The women would take part in both gathering and hunting, but mainly gathering. They used everything very wisely, including parts of ostrich eggs to hold fluids. Overall, the San were your typical hunter-gatherer society of the Paleolithic era. The Chumash lived in Southern California. They were also a hunter-gatherer society. They also were very good fisherman.They painted on cave walls and some of the drawings are still there today. Some of the Chumash settlements are believed to be over 10,000 years old. They were visited by the Spanish, which brought many diseases to the Chumash. They were also believed to be visited by Polynesians. Comparing these two cultures, we can see some similarities and many differences. They were both hunter-gatherer people. As their main food sources migrated, they followed along with them. Some differences would be that they lived in completely different parts of the world.The San did not fish, yet the Chumash did. They both have many more similarities and differences. The cultures I have compared and contrasted are only two of the many Paleolithic societies out there. They all can be recognized by their hunting and gathering ways. They followed their food, and obviously made it work for themselves. I think it would be an interesting journey to go back in time and see how they lived and interacted with each other before th e emerging of some of the technology that is common to us today.

5 Tips for Writing an Opinion Essay

5 Tips for Writing an Opinion Essay You may be required to  write an essay  that is based on your own personal opinion about a  controversial topic. Depending on your objective, your composition could be any length, from a short  letter to the editor  to a medium-sized  speech, or a long  research paper. But every piece should contain some basic steps and elements. Collect Research to Support Your Opinion Make sure that your supporting statements match the type of composition you are writing. For example, your evidence will vary from observations (for a letter to the editor) to  trustworthy statistics(for a research paper). You should include examples and evidence that demonstrate a real understanding of your topic. This includes any potential counterclaims. In order to truly understand what you are arguing for or against, it is imperative that you understand the opposing arguments of your topic. Acknowledge the Previous Opinions or Arguments That Have Been Made More than likely you are writing about a controversial topic that has been debated before. Look ​at the arguments made in the past and see how they fit in with your opinion in the context in which you are writing. How is your point of view similar or different from those articulated by previous debaters? Has something changed in the time others were writing about it and now? If not, what does the lack of change mean?   â€Å"A common complaint among students is that the dress code restricts their rights to freedom of expression. Or â€Å"While some students feel uniforms restrict their freedom of expression, many feel the pressure to uphold certain standards of appearance by their peers.† Use a  Transition Statement Transition statements show how your opinion adds to the argument or suggests those previous statements and arguments are incomplete or faulty.  Follow up with a statement that expresses your opinion. While I agree that the regulations do hamper my ability to express my individualism, I think the economic burden that the new code brings about is a bigger concern. Or â€Å"The administration has developed a program for students needing assistance in purchasing the newly required uniforms.† Be Careful Not to be Too Sarcastic Many students come from low-income families and they simply dont have the resources to buy new clothing to suit the headmasters fashion whims. This statement contains a bit of a sour note. It would only make your argument less professional-sounding. This statement says enough: Many students come from low-income families and they simply dont have the resources to buy new clothing on short notice. Use Supporting Evidence to Back up Your Position The recent increase in fees has already led to a decrease in enrollment.Some of my friends are struggling to purchase necessities, due to the rising costs. It is important to keep the tone of your essay professional, by avoiding emotional language and any language that expresses an accusation. Use factual statements that are supported by sound evidence. Note:  Any time you develop an argument, you should start by thoroughly researching your oppositions point of view. This will help you to anticipate any potential holes or weaknesses in your own opinion or argument.

Ethics in Research The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment Essay Example

Ethics in Research The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment Essay Example Ethics in Research The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment Essay Ethics in Research The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment Essay The field of medical specialty has experienced rapid growing with in the few 150 to 200 old ages. and over the old ages we have learn that many of these scientific developments were made at the disbursal of irregular processs and research carried out with small to no concern on the unethical facets of the research. as medical scientific discipline progress the research workers place small or no attempt towards informing topics about the nature of experiments. Tuskegee syphilis experiments in Alabama was on particularly an ill-famed experiment. from 1932 to 1972’ the U. S. Public Health Services ( PHS ) conducted an experiment on 400 African American males in the late phases of pox these work forces. for the most portion nonreader sharecrop farmers from one of the poorest counties in Alabama. were told what disease they were enduring from or of its earnestness. informed that they were being treated for Bad Blood their Doctors had no purpose of bring arounding them for pox at all. The information for the experiment was to be collected for necropsies of the work forces. and they were therefore intentionally left to devolve under the depredations of third poxs which can include tumours. bosom disease. palsy. sightlessness. insanity and decease. this is the most unethical. immoral and genocidal act carried out and funded my U. S. Public Health Services. Coercion or purchase was the chief tactic the PHS research workers use to enroll their trial topics. whom was hapless uneducated sharecrop farmers that luck the resources needed to seek out side aid. by misleading the participants about the truth of their unwellness ( pox ) . but non the less this was a agency for the PHS to transport out their concealed docket. to do them aware that they do hold an unwellness and The U. S. Public Health Services was at that place to assist handle them of their so call bad blood pandemic. this act of coercion provided the PHS the purchase they need to enroll necessary research topics. Because of this the consent acquired by the research workers from the research subjects was invalid because the information provided by the research workers was topics was invalid. this misdemeanor of inform consent stemmed further. the research workers did non explicate the anticipation and badness of the research. the research workers intentionally did non inform the topics that they have the right to worsen to take part and to retreat from the research once it has begun. The spider web of prevarications and misrepresentation planed and carried out by The U. S. Public Health Services research workers had no programs of bring arounding the syphilis pandemic. the misrepresentation in this research is the chief implicit in ground why this research survey is unethical in nature. instead than the existent misrepresentation itself. the deliberate usage of misrepresentation in this research resulted in the deceases of a 100 African Americans research topics. these deceases was really apart of the research it self. ’The survey actively kept the work forces off from intervention. even after penicillin became widely used for the intervention of pox in 1950s. In February of 1969. the PHS decided to go on the survey and to go on to deny the work forces antibiotic intervention even though penicillin had become established as the criterion intervention for pox. because it assumed that the disease was far excessively advanced for it to be treated. Associated Press newsman Jean Heller broke the narrative on July 25. 1972 on the front-page of the New York Times and the survey stopped at once After the research had ended the lone 74 participants of 400 septic topics had still been a unrecorded after the survey got exposited. In August 1972. an ad hoc commission found the survey to hold been ethically unjustified and argued that penicillin should hold been given to the work forces upon its find. 40 old ages after the experiment had ended the trial topics was non Adequate debriefed on the true nature of the survey and the long-run effects of the of the pox on their organic structures. married woman and childs. After the imperativeness release of the Tuskegee pox experiment the trial topics was provided with small to no confidentiality from the imperativeness or PHS after the findings of the research was publish. The experiment diverseness was limited to African Americans males. who were the carry of the pox. Mentions William J. Clinton. Remarks. in Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. erectile dysfunction. Susan M. Reverby ( Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 2000 ) . 574-577. Thomas G. Benedek and Jonathan Erlen. The Scientific Environment of the Tuskegee Study of Syphilis. 1920-1960. Positions in Biology and Medicine 43 no. 1 ( 1999 ) . 1-30. Ad Hoc Tuskegee Syphilis Panel. Selections from the Final Report. in Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. erectile dysfunction. Susan M. Reverby ( Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 2000 ) . 166. Jean Heller. Syphilis Victims in the U. S. Went Untreated for 40 old ages. in Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. erectile dysfunction. Susan M. Reverby ( Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 2000 ) . 116-117. anessa N. Gamble and Deborah Stone. U. S. Policy on Health Unfairnesss: the Interplay of Politics and Research. Journal of Health Politics. Policy and Law 31. ( 2006 ) : 93-126. Ruth R. Faden. Susan E. Lederer. J. E. Lederer. and Juan D. Moreno. U. S. Medical Researchers. the Nuremberg Doctors Trial. and the Nuremberg Code. Journal of the American Medical Association. 276 no. 20 ( 1996 ) : 1668. Martin S. Pernick. The patient’s function in medical determination devising: a societal history of informed consent in medical therapy. in Making Health Care Decisions: A Report on the Ethical and Legal Implications of Informed Consent in the Patient-Practitioner Relationship. President’s Commission for Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. 3 1-25.

How September 11, 2001 has Affected the Airline Essay

How September 11, 2001 has Affected the Airline - Essay Example This series of events was perhaps one of the most unforgettable in all of the United States' history, and certainly one of the most devastating. In order to come to a clearer and more knowledgeable viewpoint on this subject matter, the following questions must be addressed: By thoroughly discussing these questions, as well as relevant and concise related topics, we can come to a more understanding and intellectual viewpoint on this subject of interest. The aim of this paper is to discuss all of these elements, while especially making it understood how the airline economy has been affected by this event; from people being scared to fly, to airlines cutting routes, to the leading of some airlines actually going out of business. This is what will be dissertated in the following. The hijackers who carried out the terrorist attacks of September 11th were connected to al-Qaeda, which is an Islamic terrorist group led by Osama bin Laden. Initially, Bin Laden had denied responsibility for the attacks, but eventually he claimed direct responsibility for orchestrating the attacks. (CBC News, 2004). ... As an end result, there were 2,986 fatalities. How has September 11th Affected the Airline Economy The terrorist attacks of September 11th resulted in short-term and long-term disruption of economic activity in many ways. This disruption was especially severe in regards to the United States' airlines. The United States' airline industry was already in a weak financial position before the attacks and were "with rising debt ratios and falling returns on investment." (Looney, 2002: 1(6)). Even to the present day airline passenger traffic has apparently remained below normal, "100,000 layoffs have been announced and employment in October and November fell by 81,000 (almost 8 percent)." (Looney, 2002: 1(6)). In the most simplistic terms, the United States' airline sector has lost around 20 percent of its overall relative value since September 11th. The attacks had a significant economic impact on the United States and world markets. Many of the major local airline carriers have permanently cancelled certain destinations, and reduced the number of flights operated. Even hotels in local es such as Egypt, Jordan, Tunisia, Morocco and Dubai reported a significant drop in occupancy rates. Tourism in New York City plummeted after the attacks of 9/11, causing massive losses in a sector which employed 280,000 people and generated $25 billion per year. "In the week following the attack, hotel occupancy fell below 40 percent, and 3,000 employees were laid off." ("Wikipedia", 2006). The New York City projected budget deficit for the 2003 fiscal year which begins July 2002 ballooned from $2-$2.5 billion to approximately $4 billion, "though most direct expenses related to the rescue and recovery effort are to be covered by the

Definition of family Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Definition of family - Essay Example This essay discusses that there prevailed among the American whites a form of monogamy easily terminable on both sides, which was called the â€Å"pairing family.† The issue of the married pair was known to everybody knew and identified by everyone: there was without a doubt who was to be referred to as father, mother, daughter, son, sister or a brother. However, these names were in fact used rather in a different way. The man not only referred to his own young ones as his daughters and sons but also the kids of his brothers, and they referred to him as the father. The kids of his sisters, on the other hand, he referred to them as his nephews and nieces, and they referred to him as their uncle. In the modern world, it is very hard to define family. This is so because parents nowadays have little influence on their children. Children are mostly influenced by their peers and also by the media. Children are influenced negatively by whatever they learn on the television and on the internet. Parents have also delegated the duty of molding their children to teachers. It becomes very hard for a teacher having several pupils to monitor and tutor each and every pupil closely. Parents spend most of their time working. This means there is no or less family time. There has also been a case of neglect of children by parents leading to the suffering of children. This has led to children being sent to foster homes. Hence it can be concluded that family is anyone who gives you a sense of belonging, care, love, and protection.